South America - a vast territory, the indigenous population which differs strikingly diverse. Although any division into ranges can not reflect the full diversity of its ethnic composition, in most cases made the following classification: a) region of the Andes (from Colombia to Chile), which includes the culture of the Incas of Peru, and b) area of the Rainforest, mainly occupied by Amazon jungle, to adjoin the Guyana; c) Many of Chaco, and d) the southern area, extending to Tierra del Fuego.
Despite the European conquest, some local cultures could be preserved: the Quechua and Aymara in Peru and Bolivia; Araucania in Chile; Tupi, Carib, Arawak, toucans and ANSPs in Guiana, the same tribes in eastern Brazil, as well as the extinct culture today people of Tierra del land, for example, people selknam.
The first attempt to give a synthetic analysis of the history of the beliefs of the South American continent was the book by Lawrence Sullivan "Icanchu's Drum", 1988.Anyone who wishes to deepen their knowledge in this area can now apply to his work, written based on a wide range of readers.
Region of the Andes. Great cultures of the Andes, among which the most famous is the culture of the Incas (XV cent.) Occurred in the high valleys, where people began to settle for ten thousand years ago. By the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire covered vast areas of the west coast, from Peru to Chile. In 1532 the Inca empire collapsed, and its last ruler was beheaded by the conquerors.
The ancient period. Farming in the Peruvian coast are about three thousand years after the migration of peoples from the north, that is much earlier than the transhumant pastoralists and traces of agricultural culture dates back to 700 ADAround 2500 BC climatic changes have resulted in economic changes: there was a transition from gathering to settled cultivation of vegetables. Hunting was not developed the necessary protein foods, people received on fishing. Maize, which grows in Central America for more than sixty thousand years, is distributed in Peru around 1400 BC, and by 900 BC people have grown to an improved grade. At the same time, a system of irrigation, will promote the development of advanced agriculture, and as a consequence, there is a state in charge of water distribution, it is possible that existing at the time of the religious cult celebrates the mythical origins of a new civilization unparalleled in the region. This period corresponds to the cultural complex, found in Chavin, on the northern plateau, while on the south coast at that time dominated the culture, leaving behind a huge necropolis in the caves of Parakou. Unfortunately with the exception of architectural monuments, information about the cult of Chavin did not survive, so the value of it inaccessible to our understanding. The main deity of the cult, which took shape of an animal breed cats (jaguar, puma, or), for five hundred years enjoyed huge popularity in the Andean region.
Around 3000 BC traces the cultural unity of the Andes disappear suddenly, but agriculture continues to evolve: reclaim new species of plants, terraced farming is practiced. The only cemetery in Parakou, containing 429 mummies of the local nobility, indicates that the methods of burial, and the belief in the afterlife have been changed.
Around 200 AD culture, representing the transitional period, reaching its peak of prosperity. Culture of these theocratic, omnipotent deity in the main these is the animal of the breed of cat, human sacrifices to the gods, and, like its predecessors, appears totally inexplicable interest in the human skull, from the birth baby's skull is deformed carefully, and then, throughout the life , the skull is repeatedly exposed craniotomy, the same procedure is carried out after death, skull collecting enemies as war trophies.
Although the coastal valleys were never overcrowded, had they lived far more people than now. In that society reigned wealth, religious beliefs encourage people to create advanced technologies and implement bold projects, the design of which was on the verge of human capabilities, such projects include the construction of a 113-meter channel La Cumbre, which exists to this day.
One of these cultures, the culture Mochica, threw up huge temples, the most famous of which are two of the pyramid called the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. The images on ceramic tiles suggest that urine practiced circumcision, and to heal resorted to shamans conjure disease, which saw them quite tangible objects. Ideograms preserved, applied to the fruits of legumes. In a theocratic society urine enjoyed special honor caste of priests. The role of women is strictly limited to the domestic hearth.
Coastal culture Nazca, Mochica culture today, left us as many trophies flattened skulls, painted and strung in garlands to them it was easier to transport. On the brown cliffs of the valley Palpa Nasca created huge paintings, clearly intended for contemplation above some celestial deity, these figures reflect a certain system of astronomical knowledge and their meaning to us for the most part unclear.
By the end of the period megalithic civilization Tiaunako (Bolivia) has the same cultural impact on the peoples inhabiting the Andes, which at an earlier age provided the Chavin culture. Megalithic structures erected at a height of 4000 meters, form the world's only settlement with stepped pyramids, with gates put on them in concentric circles, squares, water tanks, and statues. When the fort was abandoned, its construction has not yet been completed.
Around 1000 AD in the Andes established socio-political system, reminiscent of western feudalism. In the north there is the kingdom of Chimu, the most powerful in this period, it subdues a lot of valleys, each of which constructed its own urban center. The capital of the Kingdom of Chan Chan (near Trujillo) is a remarkable monument of urban planning: the city, where more than fifty thousand inhabitants, was divided into ten rectangular blocks, and each of them had their homes, water tanks and temples of the pyramids.
Amazing story. The base of the Inca Empire, referring to 1200 BC, is attributed to the mythical hero of Manco Capac and his sister, settled in the valley of Cuzco. Inca state began to actively extend only from the eighth emperor Viracocha Inca Pachacutec and his son, who inherited his father's throne around 1438 to 1493, when the son died Topa Inca Pachacutec, the territory of the empire was already five thousand kilometers length, and the emperor ruled the lands from Ecuador to the middle of Chile. The establishment of this empire can be equated to the exploits and Alexander of Macedon and Napoleon. All the more surprising that such a vast area has managed to capture only a handful of Spanish adventurers. After the death of Huayna Capac in 1525 began the internecine war between two of his sons, Huáscar (settled in Cuzco), and Atahualpa (settled in Quito, Ecuador). Atahualpa defeated, and in 1532 he was proclaimed emperor. Pizarro, attracted by tales of fabulous gold placers of Peru, landed on the coast of this state with one hundred and eighty of the soldiers. Since then, religion is closely intertwined with the story.Atahualpa decided that Pizarro - this is the great god Viracocha, who returned to earth with his retinue, to proclaim the end of the world. Pizarro took advantage of it and made the emperor his prisoner without resistance on his part. Atahualpa was able to collect a ransom for himself to the brim filled his cell with gold, but the freedom it will still not returned. Sentenced to death, he received Christian baptism, then it did not burn at the stake, as agreed, but only a strangled - August 29, 1533 And forty years later he was beheaded last pretender to the throne of the Incas.
The beliefs of the Incas. In the communist empire of the Incas official religion - and this was the religion of the Quechua of Cuzco, who had, most likely, many features in common with its smaller assimilated cults - was in charge of the state. Of the three plots of land, which handles the farmer, the first section was dedicated to God, the second - the emperor, and only the third was intended to feed his family. Sacred objects, or Huaca, the conquered peoples solemnly carried to Cuzco and stacked in the sanctuary, where they look at the pilgrims from distant provinces. The category of Huaca could treat all endowed with sacred properties: hills, rocks, trees - anything that was not clear or is dire.
The device of the Inca empire around like a rational utopia, stories about her, reaching to the top of the XVII century. Europe is undoubtedly influenced by Tommaso Campanella. Church of the Incas has a marvelous organization and covered the entire state system as a whole. In the center of it all stood the emperor, who personified the State Act, and God himself. Being himself Huaca, it was equal to the One who has no equal, the god Viracocha, born from the foam of the waters of Lake Titicaca and disappeared in the foam of the ocean, going on its waters to the north-west, in the direction from which in 1532 sailed Pizarro and his men .
The Metaphysics of Viracocha is very complex. He the creator of the natural and social world order, which explains his ascent to the top of the pantheon of the Incas, central to which is the sun. He is dedicated to the biggest temple in Cuzco. Inca temples were closed to the faithful. They lived the priests and virgins of the sun, selected among the girls with an impeccable reputation and educated at public expense, in order to become a vestal virgin, or, or second wives of important officials, or even the emperor himself. If the emperor "sinned" with one of the Vestals, was enough for him to admit his wrongdoing, but if such a misdeed committed any of his subjects, that he was immediately put to death along with his mistress.
In the temples of the Sun was represented in the form of anthropomorphic statues and huge gold discs. If the emperor was considered the son of the Sun, the empress proclaimed daughter of the moon, sister, wife of the Sun, in the temples of her image was presented in the form of silver anthropomorphic statues. The Incas used the lunar calendar in the main, but not neglected, and solar. Important deities were Pachacamac, god of the earth, with his infernal wife Pachamama, and Illapa, the god of disposing of the weather.
At the top hierarchy of the Church was the great priest, a close relative of the emperor, when it consisted of nine council, whose members were the "Incas by privilege." The priests always made inspection trips to the provinces, where the cult has long been the guardians sent Huaca, voluntary priests who did not receive remuneration for their activities from the public treasury. The temples were not the place for meetings. Collective rituals are often accompanied by the sacrifice of animals occurred in the central squares, the ceremony were both redemptive and prophetic. The victims, most pleasing to the gods, considered to be a decade of children, elected for their moral and physical perfection, the victims were happy just to get directly into the otherworldly kingdom prepared for, as was usual, only the nobility. In contrast to the customs of the Aztecs and Mayans similar customs, human sacrifices practiced by the Incas are rare. Even more rarely staged mass slaughter, like a bloody ceremonies of the Aztecs, when the sacrifice was the strongest and most enduring war.
As in Egypt, the Inca priests charge of all that related to health - as a "body politic" of the state and its citizens, accumulating, thus, responsible for the duties of sacrifice, soothsayers, sorcerers and shamans. Like Babylon bar, they predicted the future by studying the entrails of sacrificial animals. They also practiced the treatment of disease through aspiration of pathogenic substances that caused the imbalance in the body. In addition, they were chiropractors and chiropractic movements returned to the place of disintegrated bodies, and also excellent surgeons who can carry out complex operations, such as craniotomy, the real purpose which in many cases, escapes us.
Unfortunately, the lack of written records created by the Incas, makes it impossible for a deeper knowledge of their beliefs. At the time, Spanish priests impressed existence of the Incas "monks" and "Sisters" (vestals of the sun), and the practice of secrecy of confession. However, the ability to understand the sophisticated Inca thought lost forever, and we end up with her scraps, simplified or distorted by alien invaders.
Religions of the rainforest. The huge jungle, which lie along the rivers Orinoco and Amazon, exciting and mountainous areas of Guyana, inhabited by numerous tribes speaking languages Arawak, Carib, Pano and Tupi. And although each group of people have their own religion, or a version thereof, all the cults of the region is there a lot in common - a mythological level, defined as Claude Levi-Strauss in his monumental work "Mithologiques", and at the level of ideas, practices and institutions, as concluded recently, Lawrence Sullivan.
The main deity of the region occupied an intermediate position between the Supreme Being and a cultural hero, culture hero function is expressed most clearly.As we noted above, the ethnologist A. Jensen, based on an analysis of mythological structures of Aboriginal Moluccas archipelago of Indonesia came to the conclusion that the numerous myths about the creation of the world are reduced to two archetypes, just for mythologies of the world: the myth of the gods deme, sacrificed and gave tuberous plants such as the life of potatoes, and the myth of Prometheus, in which the sky secretly steal cereals.
Lunar deity Moma uitoto Indians of northwestern Amazonia - pronounced deity deme, it does not correspond to the requirements of the celestial Supreme Being, who is seen as some ethnologists. The Indians of Guyana varikyana a sun-god-demiurge Pura, which periodically destroys the world; Pura much closer than the former deity, the Supreme Being, an exemplary embodiment of which is Deus otsiozus Karuskaybe other Caribbean people - munduruku. In fact, creating a world of things and the human world, Karuskaybe, mortally wounded men, retired to the inaccessible areas of the sky. When the end of the world, he will come back to burn the fire of humanity.
The bottom-line belief of Indians of tropical forest is the existence of the invisible world, interacting with everyday life, but to come into contact with this world is possible only in case of changes in the state of consciousness, the latter occurs during sleep, in trance, when inhaled drugs, which occur after the vision; some people are predisposed to mysteriously like contacts, this predisposition is both natural and acquired through special training. Both worlds intersect, creatures from another world can enter the human world, taking, as usual, the shape of animals such as caiman, anaconda, jaguar, or a hawk, but only an expert can identify the animal in the guise of supreme substance. All can have their counterparts in the invisible world; sanema Indians living on the border between Brazil and Venezuela, even distinguish eight categories hevkula or hidden creatures.
Among the various spirits in many cults, the central place occupied by the Lords of the animals, because they set the number of animals and fish intended for consumption.
No less important are the spirits of ancestors, as they remain invisible, continue to participate in the life of the living. From a few souls, vested in the person, the one that survives his physical death, may attend live and sometimes even benefit from them. Representations of the South American Indians of the soul differ primarily from three major exercises, common in both the East and in the religions of the Mediterranean: from metampsihozy, tradutsianizma, born anew. Indians believe in the existence of a reservoir with a mental substance, where the soul returns, and how to dissolve it to the indeterminate state. To liven up the new man, he must pass a particle of this substance.Indians in eastern Ecuador, hut believe in the multiplicity of souls, they distinguish "normal" soul of the soul "perfect" and the soul, "vindictive." Normal soul is at all mortals, the perfect soul is acquired only after contact with the invisible world.However, the hovel of a person prefer to drive out the perfect soul, because for her, he begins to crave blood. After killing the enemy, a person may purchase a second, a perfect soul, becoming the owner of two perfect souls, he becomes invulnerable.Not being able to own more than two perfect souls, however, he can now take advantage of the power contained in other souls.
Vengeful spirit appears after the death of the owner of a perfect soul, she wants revenge for the murder. Therefore, hut practice drying heads of their enemies, because they believe that by doing so vengeful soul will remain in the head as in a trap.
An expert on religious cults in the South American Indians is a shaman, whose responsibilities include the healing diseases as society as well as physical diseases generated pathogenic human occupancy in the spirits of the invisible world.
It is clear that religious faiths of the South American Indians have an unusually complex structure that permeates the whole of their culture as a whole, so that separate "secular" aspect of "religious" is almost impossible. In fact, for each of us, peace is a universal thought process, no place for division of operations: there is no clear boundary between those when we stop to think "secular" and begin to think "religion", or vice versa. "Sacred" and "worldly" invariably overlap, speak the same language and with one voice pronounced the same "word".
The beliefs of the Gran Chaco. Plain of the Gran Chaco (Quechua Chaco means "hunting ground") is located in the heart of the South American continent, between Mato Grosso and Pampa. Indians live here, speaking in tongues zamuko, Tupi-Guarani, Mataco-poppy-guaykuru kaduveo and Arawaks. All the tribes in the region practiced shamanism and believe in the supernatural creatures that inhabit the unseen world, coexists with our world. In Native American myths tell of the origin of the world, plant, animal, human, and the initiation of shamans. Among the supernatural beings are the Supreme Being, to varying degrees, fused together with cultural heroes or gods of the EMA, heroes, stole, like Prometheus, cereals and / or fire, and the Tricksters, crafty creatures found in myths of the peoples of the Americas (as well as in other continents) and to varying degrees, endowed with the creative functions. In the mythology of the tribes of the region face of all these religious things a little vague.
Beliefs Pampas, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Today, a number of tribes in the region have already disappeared from the face of the earth, but ethnographers have time to study them. Particular attention was paid to the beliefs of the Indians of Tierra del Zemi (selknam or she, or yahana Yamana and alakaluf), in which there is the Supreme Being. In this god selknam Temakuel, retired into the sky, leaving ancestors Keno solve the problem of ordering the world. Selknam not often bother Temakuelya requests, but every day brought him a sacrifice to eat.
Millentarizma movement among the Tupi-Guarani of Mato Grosso arose shortly after the arrival of European colonizers. In 1539 twelve thousand Tupi fled to Brazil in search of Earth-Where-No-Evil, arrived in Peru, it was found that, after passing the Indians remained no more than three thousand. The remaining ruined famine and disease. In 1602 the Jesuits prevented the outcome of three thousand Indians from the region of Bahia, headed by a prophet (page), the Indians were going to go in search of Earth-Where-No-Evil. Such migration continued until the twentieth century.Such self-destructive enterprises have many explanations, these phenomena are usually regarded as a "Messiaen", borrowed from a local or introduced by the crops, or as a "movement of the oppressed peoples" (to what the Tupi are not treated), or as a mechanism of internal regulation of the society, by trying to self-destruction to protect itself from public institutions (E. Lay).
Mircea Eliade, Ion Kuliano. Dictionary of religions, rituals and beliefs (series "Myth, Religion, Culture"). - Moscow, Foreign Literature, "Rudomino", St. Petersburg, "University Book", 1997. S. 40-51.
An ancient civilization of the North Mountain of Peru (the Chavin culture)
The Central Andes stretching along the Pacific coast of South America's band, whose length is about 1,800 km (north-west to south-east), the width of 300-400 km.This includes most of the Peruvian and Bolivian Antiplano. This area is divided into two sharply distinct parts: the Coast - Pacific Coast and the Sierra - the ridges and valleys. It is here that have emerged and developed high cultures predinkskogo time.
The mountainous part Tsenralnyh Andes - Sierra - is a series of ridges height of nearly 7000 m above sea level, going from northwest to southeast. They are separated by deep and narrow river valleys. Almost all rivers are the Amazon basin.They are great and abounding. Band of mountains extends to the south, where lies the mountain plateau - the Altiplano, or Puna.
Climatic conditions vary greatly and the Sierras vary the height of the terrain. Usually there are four climatic zones. Lower, "Tierra Caliente" (to a height of 1,000 - 1,500 m above sea level) - hot. following it, "Thiers templeyada" (up to 2000-2800 m) has a temperate climate. Above are "Tierra Fria" (up to 3200-3500 m) with low positive temperatures and "Tierra elyada" (above 3500 m) with a very harsh climate.Seasonal variations in temperature in all areas of the Sierras are small. Vegetation, especially in the upper zones is rather scarce.
The most characteristic animal of the Central Andes - Lama - lives here and is particularly prevalent in the southern Sierra, where there are also guanaco, vicuna and alpaca. Here live cougar, puma or, foxes and large birds of prey - condors.
The geographical scope of the district of North Sierra practically coincide with the basin of the upper reaches of rivers Maranon and Huallaga, flowing from the south-east to north-west and Central Cordillera mountain range divided. The same applies to the area and Kalehon de Uaylas - closed on all sides by mountains valley of the upper reaches of the river. Santa empties into the Pacific Ocean.
Chavin Culture
One of the major cultures of ancient Peru - Chavin derives its name from the village of Chavin de Huantar on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Blanca, near which is the main monument of the culture. Here, on one of the smaller tributaries of the left.Maranon, stand the ruins of an ancient building complex, which most archaeologists viewed as a temple.
Building remains
The basic construction of the monument is almost square platform (75h72, 50 m) whose walls are built of stone, lying flat, with two rows of narrow slabs interspersed with a number of plates of greater thickness. The height of the walls in the south-western most corner of the surviving buildings up to 9.50 m. At this height the wall is a ledge width of 2.50 m, above which rises a second platform height as 2.50 m. On the upper floor are visible traces of stone buildings.
At the level of the ledge mentioned in ancient times acted cornice of stone slabs overhanging the wall. End, and speaking of the bottom plates were decorated with carvings. Below the cornice was a series of sculptural heads with a human face that has many fantastic features. These goals are behind the ledge, with which they were mounted in a masonry wall.
From the east to the top of the building that bears the name of Castillo in the literature and conducted a staircase, found HS Tello. However, earlier entrance to the summit located about midway east side of the building, whose basement was lined large slabs. On either side of a stepped entrance stood two round columns decorated with carved figures of fantastical creatures. South tower was made of white, and the north - from the black stone. They once supported huge stone lintel carved with images of condors, which was found broken into pieces near the towers. This entry was called Black and White Portal.
The space inside is filled with retaining walls Castillo earth and broken stone, and this sequence is penetrated by numerous underground galleries. Along with the high and quite wide corridors are met fairly narrow shaft, probably intended for ventilation and drainage. Corridors and stairs are provided with recesses and lead to other tunnels or small rooms. The walls are lined with galleries of the same masonry as the exterior. The ceilings are made of large plates, overlapping the entire passage, or based on a slightly advanced stone walls. These galleries are in all likelihood, several floors.
To the north-western corner of the Castillo is adjacent to the north is quite narrow embankment. It is one of the most interesting objects in the monument - statue of the deity, which stands in an underground room. In the literature it has received the name of Lanson. Embankment joins the two hills, and hiding in his thick ancient structures.
Eastward façade Castillo goes on a broad (25 m) terrace, which encircles the building and on the south side (where it reaches a width of only 9 m). The height of the terrace to the east, where it has a retaining wall, 2.50 m.
Thus, Castillo stands as it were on the platform. Immediately before it is ground, bounded on the north and south elevations of the rectangular, apparently the remains of buildings.
The size and decoration of the walls and the entrance to the Castillo suggest its public buildings, and the appointment of a religious statue shows the deity in the interior of buildings and an abundance of stones carved with fantastic creatures in a very specific and traditional style.
Another architectural complex of Chavin culture was found in Kuntur Huasi, on the watershed between the valleys of the rivers Marañón and Pacasmayo. Here, open structure in the form of a three pyramids on top of which are the ruins of buildings.On the surface, found numerous stone slabs decorated with carvings, sculptures, ornamental head, is inserted into the masonry walls and other architectural details typical of the style of Chavin.
Sculpture
At Chavin de Huantar and other monuments of this culture found many monoliths carved with figures. Most often it is flat stones, covered with images in low relief.Less common round sculpture.
The central figure in art Chavin culture - a predator of the cat family, whose prototype was probably a jaguar or puma. His full image appears, however, are quite rare.Most vividly the image transferred to the eaves plates Castillo, where the predator cut standing in profile, with bared mouth and a long tail whose end is twisted into a ring. The body is covered with highly stylized images of faces predator. On the back and chest - the tabs in the form of heads of snakes (?). On the feet - large curved claws. This image was, apparently, canonical, since it is repeated in a flat carving and sculpture in the bulk. Sometimes the beast is depicted lying.
Besides the main image, the art of the Chavin culture prevalent images of fantastic creatures, composed of various elements belonging and animals and man.
The images in the group of anthropomorphic creatures tend to have a human figure, but endowed with a predator mouth with characteristic protruding fangs and claws on animals' feet and hands. In order to complete the monstrous appearance of these fantastic creatures of their long hair often end with snake (?) Heads. Headgear or hairstyles for Lanson and Raimondi Stela consist of repeating stylized heads of predators.
Two complex images carved on the pillars black and white portal. This is a monster with a human torso en face, spread wide wings of an eagle and shown in profile, face koshacheo predator looking up. By the muzzle put in charge of the hooked beak of an eagle. In the lowered feet horizontally monster holding spear throwers. In these complex shapes are mounted features feline predator, the condor and the man.
The image of the condor is also very common. Eight core image of the mighty birds adorn the stone lintel of Black and White Portal. Seven of them are turning to the left, face the eighth. Although these reliefs torso always looks like the bird, the scheme of the head is the same as that of the monsters in black and white portal: this feline predator's head with the oversight of the front beak. Several images condor with outstretched wings is closer to the figures of columns. Feet apart condors, and the tail is cut in the form of a broad fan. The head is made as well as in the previous case, and looking up.
Much less common image of the snake with the head of feline predator. These snakes are carved on the ends of the cornice board Castillo. By the same token polymorphism and built an image of fish with a cat's head to face the beast on Stela Tello and on the stone of Yauyya.
Stylistically carving Chavin culture is characterized by straight lines, rounded corners, an abundance of ornamental detail, covering the entire piece so that it is sometimes difficult to understand the scheme itself an image. As a general rule, elements of the ornament consists of multiple parts of an image repeated feline predator. Most often it is the head, or just mouth with fangs, or eye. A common feature - the head of "snakes" on a long neck. More likely, these "snakes" are a very simplified diagram of the same head predator.
On the monuments of Chavin culture found a small group of images, which, being close to those described above, stylistically somewhat different from them. They all have important differences from the classical sculptures Chavin culture.
Perhaps the closest thing to classical figures carved on the two bars that go back to his scheme for a condor with outstretched wings. One of them has a head with the oversight of the predator bill. The interpretation of the wings and other parts different from the classic: straight lines and rounded corners are replaced by curved lines, ornamental snout and mouth turned into geometrical patterns, not entirely fill the space, and the whole figure became more dynamic.
Among the images in this group more anthropomorphic creatures, and there are as fantastic images of the human body and animal jaws, wings or beak-to-face oversight of the condor, and human images. Part of the figure in a fairly realistic predator treatment. Very unique and unusual for classical image transfer in the form of the eye cup with the adjacent two triangles.
In general, this group, although it differs more realistic, dynamic and less ornamental image is closely associated with classical statues Chavin culture both in composition and in the interpretation of the main images.
Ceramics
Most of the dishes featuring distinctive style found on the monuments of the Chavin Peruvian coast. In the mountains - the main area of distribution of this culture - ceramics occurs most commonly in fragments, which in combination with a few whole vessels can get some idea of the Chavin culture dish. Distribute widely been open flat-bottomed bowl, spherical vessels and bottles with high cylindrical or slightly tapering neck, swelling, and whisk round torso. There are also vessels with stremevidnym throat - a form that has long remained a characteristic of northern Peru.
Dishes were richly ornamented. Technique of the ornament is very diverse. Here and cutting, and wide grooves and impressions of stamps, and pinhole.Occasionally come across relief or relief images ukrashenich type rollers. The motives of ornamentation is also varied. There are tapes, limited cutting and filled pinhole or cutting inside. Very characteristic circles and circles with a dot. Often on the dishes carved lines are plotted zoomorphic images, stylized in a manner typical for sculpture.
Unfortunately, neither the burial nor things (except ceramics), which could be regarded as unquestionably belonging to the Chavin culture, has not yet been studied.
Ceramics with ornaments coated with white paint on a red background clay, common in northern Peru. But the monuments of Northern Sierra, where it was found, it is inexpressive and not subjected to special scrutiny. Burials with dishes having a painting, cut the cultural layer at Chavin de Huantar. However, the description of the burial structures and burial ceremonies in the publication WKBennett is not given.
It found only vessels with straight diverging walls, bowls with convex sides and dishes. The bottoms of most round. Painted ware "combinations of lines of horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines, wavy lines, triangles, filled dots and circles."
The lifetime of the monuments of this pottery in the north of Peru mining rather vague. What is clear is that they are younger than the Chavin culture.VA Bashilov. The ancient civilizations of Peru and Bolivia. Moscow, "Nauka", 1972.
Chavin Culture
(On paper by Yu Berezkin "Chavin" in the book. "Disappeared People")
Chavin. It's exotic name has long worried the minds of archaeologists Americanists.Chavin issue devoted to scientific conferences and polemical articles. Typical images of deities with bared fanged mouth can be found on the stamps of the Republic of Peru and in the pages of popular foreign magazines. Happily enlivened with the word "Chavin" supporters of trans-oceanic and inter-planetary contacts: a mysterious civilization - a welcome material for any speculation. A mystery indeed a lot. But first a few words about the proper Chavin, more precisely, of Chavin de Huantar - ancient ruins, which gave name to the culture and are its most striking and remarkable monument.
The temple in the valley
Chavin de Huantar located in the northern mountains of Peru at an altitude of 3170 m above sea level, at the confluence of Mosna (a tributary of Marani-ones) with a small stream Vacheksoy. The ruins of this monument is located between the shore of the river and the grassy hillside. Dominates over the ruins of a building of rectangular shape (75h72 m) in the form of steep truncated pyramid, dubbed by locals "Castillon" - a fortress. The title is, of course, conditional. This is not a fortress, a temple. The height of the pyramid more than 13 m. Its walls are built of hewn stone slabs smoothly and were adorned with relief friezes and stone heads of deities, the speakers of the masonry. On the site now there were only a block of stone with pictures snakes and jaguars and one head. The remaining stones with images stored in various collections and museums, or hit the home of the surrounding farmers.
In 50 years on the east side of the pyramid was unearthed a monumental portal - framing stairs with her two pillars. The northern half of the portal is composed of dark slabs, the south - from light. Does this ladder to the roof - on the right and left divergent steps you can go upstairs.
Before the portal, the pyramid is a range of platforms, plazas, and staircases, and all around the center of the territory of at least 0.5 square meters. km visible mounds, apparently hiding the remains of the houses.
From the north to the pyramid adjacent to two array of masonry at a height and strongly swollen. It remains older than the pyramid of the building, which had a plan shaped U. The southern wing of this part later was incorporated into the masonry of the pyramid, and the northern extension is made, so that the entire complex was again U-shaped.
In 1972 he formed inside this ancient building has been excavated rectangular yard diameter circular area of 21 m, surrounded by a wall height of 1 m. The walls were faced with slabs with images of people or deities and jaguars. From west to east and down the stairs from the area of light granite, each with 7 steps. Light stone has been paved and the area itself, but the staircase connects the path of the black plates.
In the XVI century. it was known that within the Chavín monumental buildings have rooms rather narrow corridors. Many generations of eager gold hunters tore poluzasypannye inputs and with candles and torches in their hands climbed the tangled maze. In most corridors gold hunters found only in bats, but when they made their way to the cross-shaped building in the central part of the building (right of stairs led him hidden from the eyes of a circular area), covering the horror newcomers, and they hurried to get out into fresh air. In the middle aisle stood a huge monolith in the form of frightening figures of snakes on her head and bared fanged mouth. In XIX-XX centuries. near the ruins have been found and other religious images carved on stone tablets and steles, including figures of anthropomorphic deities, mythical serpents, condors and jaguars, caimans and two, male and female, from the bodies which are the coca, cassava, and perhaps moresome plants.
Today's "Relic Hunters" less fearful, better equipped than their predecessors in the XVI-XIX centuries. And, most importantly interest not only in gold, so that their "research" certainly would have caused enormous damage to the monument, if not taken care of nature about its safety. January 17, 1945 as a result of glacial lake outburst in the upper Mosna Chavin was completely flooded and filled with a thick layer of mud. After becoming less accessible to tourists and looters, he basically lived happily until the time when the shovel archaeologist finally touched the ancient stones.
The network of centers of the temple
During excavation works in 1946, Chavin Peruvian researchers LG Lumbreras and Amat EO focus turned to the study of internal galleries. We find that the void is only apparent. Under a layer of clay on the floor and corridors extending from the small rooms they were found broken blood vessels with images that are close in style as the images on different monumental reliefs of the Chavin de Huantar and painting pottery, found in different areas of Peru.
It is established that the architectural complex on the Mosna - not only the temple center, at the same time with him there were other, located within the area covering the northern mountains of Peru and northern and central part of the coast. In the mountains there are two of them: Pakopampa and Kuntur-Huasi, and facilities Pakopampy - one of the oldest. Studied this temple archaeologists date the earliest built in 1800 BC. Oe. Then Pakopampa falls under the influence of Chavin de Huantar, the church is expanding, but the local culture still retains considerable originality. Significantly different from the style of the actual chavinoidnoy and monumental sculpture, Kuntur Huasi. On the coast, churches, exhibiting varying degrees of closeness to the Chavin, Moche found in the valleys, Nepenya, Kasme, Chilon. Despite the distance from each other and originality of the different centers, they can see and similarities, especially in the layout (U-shaped form of many complexes, the staircase in the middle of the main facade) and the themes of monumental and decorative arts.
With the discovery in the Chavin ceramics, and common to other sites (at least, those that are located in the coastal valleys of Moche and Chilon), it became clear that the individual churches maintain contact with each other. It is even possible that some vessels had been brought from distant places and placed insideChavin art galleries as offerings.
Thus, the first South American civilization appears as a network of interconnected centers of the temple. Actually Chavin serves as a kind of focus, not surpassing other major monumental constructions, and the quantity and quality of monuments of religious art. In addition, unlike other centers, Chavin, apparently, not only the church but also the ancient city. Posts from other places on the presence of a large inhabited area around the main complex of buildings are not available.
From primitive agriculturalists to early class society and a half thousand years
We return to the mysteries of Chavin. First of all, long remained unclear to date how this culture. "Father of Peruvian Archaeology," M. Ole, which opened in 1890-1900 years. Civilization I millennium AD. Oe. on the coast of Peru, believed that the Chavin not older than them. This opinion prevailed until then, while in the 20s Peruvian archaeologist X. C. Tello has not shown that materials that are more or less right to be called "chavinoidnymi" first, found in Peru at the vast area stretching over 1,000 km, and, secondly, of course, preceded by the cultures of I millennium AD. Oe. In recent decades, as the study of various monuments of Northern Peru and dating them radiokarbonnym method, the lifetime of the Chavin culture had to postpone all further back centuries, and now its appearance can be safely assigned to the XII century. BCE. Oe. This means that the Chavin - one of the oldest civilizations in the New World, synchronous to the earliest city-states in the Olmec Gulf Coast, and maybe that precedes them.
But the main problem is not so high antiquity as the sudden appearance of Chavin culture in northern Peru. Monumental sculpture and architecture, the original method of masonry, unique style of art developed zlatokuznechestvo (known by its findings on the coast of products with images, made on the basis of the same artistic principles, and that the characteristic Chavin reliefs in stone and ceramics) - all of this occurs as if from nowhere, not based on long tradition. Accordingly, that high-Governmental Organization, whose existence implies that we know the material and spiritual culture chavintsev, also appears as if already in the existing form.
But in the III millennium BC. Oe. residents of those areas where over 1000 - 1500 years has blossomed Chavin culture, did not know how to make pottery, and in the economy of many of them fishing, gathering, hunting had greater significance than the farming. Recall that in the Middle East between the beginning of the agricultural economy and the advent of the first early class societies of Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley was three goals. Thus, the main mystery of Chavin - society is a mystery that took place on the final path of becoming food-producing economy to early class society in a very short period of time.
Culture at the crossroads of natural areas
Naturally, in the hypotheses about the arrival of the builders of Chavin de Huantar in the northern mountains of Peru in another area there was no shortage. Their ancestral home was called Ecuador, the Amazon forest, the coast of Peru, Mexico and even China Chou. Except for the latter assumption is certainly not serious, all these views to some extent justified. In Ecuador, generated some characteristic Chavín ceramic types, and in the sea off the Ecuadorian coast are those of thermophilic mollusc shells, which we see depicted in monumental reliefs. In Amazonia, probably related worship crocodiles, which are not found in the mountain rivers, and, perhaps, the art style, as some researchers think that it was developed initially in wood carving. On the coast of Peru in the first half of the II millennium BC.Oe. constructed rather large pyramid, and possibly (if the hypothesis of an early dating of the temple of Cerro Sechin in the valley Kasme) appear on stone stelae. In Mexico, were domesticated in Peru found some crop plants. In addition, in Chavin, Olmec and was spread veneration jaguar. However, precisely because of multi-directional genetic relationships Chavin, it is clear that there must be an area where there was a merge of many disparate elements into a single culture and that it is most likely in the northern mountains of Peru, capturing, perhaps, the extreme south of Ecuador. In the end, not the inhabitants of the Amazon, and local farmers have achieved this level of production, which for the first time in America, it was possible to build on the rich decoration of the temples and their priests have served the and artisans.
Peruvian researchers Lumbreras and Amat approached the problem is with this position. According to Lumbreras, northern mountains of Peru occupy a privileged geographical position. This area is located near several centers of agriculture, where there are different agricultural crops. From Amazon here penetrated cassava, sweet potatoes and peanuts, from the forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes - coca, from Central America, through Ecuador - some types of beans and pumpkins, and possibly corn. Andes themselves - the birthplace of such crops as amaranth, quinoa and lupine, potato and other root vegetables, other than the Central American species of beans and pumpkins, and probably the Peruvian varieties of maize. Here were domesticated llama, alpaca and guinea pig (which, incidentally, is still a significant source of animal protein in the diet of Indians). It is equally important that in the immediate vicinity of Chavin different altitude zones, where resources are complementary to each other, and leading important area, "Quechua" (2300-3500 m above sea level) with even sub-tropical climate and sufficient rainfall rainfed agriculture, particularly favorable for corn crops. Significant forests in this zone there, so that the main concern of the farmer - not cutting down trees and digging canals do not, and terracing of steep slopes. Now Zone "Quechua" - Peru's breadbasket.Above it are the areas favorable for breeding of llamas and cultivation of major crops to Peru, as potatoes and quinoa. Below, in those valleys, which are open moist winds blowing from the Atlantic, possibly shifting cultivation with manioc as the main culture, and in dry valleys are grown, mainly fruit trees. Wet the eastern slopes of the Andes above zones of dense tropical forests provide a unique environment for growing coca - the bush in the leaves of which contains a narcotic substance.From ancient times the Indians used the coca of Peru during the ceremonies, and probably, like doping in heavy physical work. As for growing plants require constant daily and annual temperature about 18 ° C, it can be put only in certain areas, and coca leaves were valued very highly. The possession of coca in pre-Hispanic times was a certain guarantee of prosperity.
Severoperuansky way of addition of a civilization
Way of the addition of an ancient civilization in northern Peru was different from the known and based on the Old World (irrigation civilization valleys of great rivers, and later the class society with an economy based on rain-fed agriculture of the Mediterranean type). The only one of the oldest civilizations of Chavin culture was formed in the mountainous region on the basis of comprehensive utilization of agricultural resources of different altitudinal and climatic zones, growing number of high-yielding crops such as corn (maize), and tropical root crops (cassava) and breeding llamas and probably guinea pig. It is not clear, did chavintsy also potatoes.The fact that they breed on maize, cassava and other crops can say with certainty for two reasons. First, the images of these plants, though isolated, are found on monumental reliefs and pottery found in the northern mountains of Peru. Second, their remains are not preserved in a more humid climate region Chavin, discovered during excavations in the central mountains (where there is only cassava, which does not grow in those places) and on the coast. As for the potatoes, then the era of Chavin no images tubers or their indisputable archaeological remains. In this context, revealing that the influence of the Chavin did not spread to his homeland of potatoes - alpine steppe (Pune), the Bolivian altiplano, and clearly embraced only two natural regions: mountains with subtropical valleys and oases of the coast. In the economy of the coast, probably continued to be important to use great Peruvian food resources of coastal waters (fishing, gathering of "seafood", hunting for sea mammals).
As a result of the intensification of agriculture, the emergence of new crops, strengthen exchange and cultural interaction between the settlements located in different natural zones, in some measure on the basis of already available in Northern Peru by the middle of the II millennium BC. Oe. adding pockets of civilization was probably so rapid addition of Chavin culture, which monuments to its formative stages have been very few and so far not been found by archaeologists.After all, mountains of Peru archaeologists studied so far are extremely bad. This probably lies the mystery of origin of Chavin.
Chavin and the Barbarians
Chavin civilization has had a huge impact on the surrounding of the primitive tribes.In the early farming cultures of Central and Northern Peru extends chavinoidnaya or near her front ceramics, there are pictures of jaguar and anthropomorphic deity with fangs jaguar mouth. According to the studied this question VA Bashilova, borrowing inhabitants of different regions of Peru, some elements of the Chavin culture was associated with the penetration of them new, more productive varieties of corn, which had at its disposal chavintsy. As for the cult in Chavin feline predator, it, as already mentioned, is sometimes credited with the Central American influence, for such a cult was widespread among living on the Gulf Coast Olmec. Initially, jaguars were deified, where predators were the natural defenders of the fields of grazing animals. Consequently, the cult of the jaguar could have arisen not only in Mexico but in any forest region of South America, much closer to the Chavin.
However, not all the tribes came under the influence of civilization Chavin. Thus, archaeologists have long noticed that in the valley Kalehon de Uaylas, just west of the valley Mosna, for the mountain range, there is almost no monuments of Chavin.Residents Kalehon de Uaylas sculpted rather coarse ware and painted it on a red background with white paint.At least 300 - 400 years after the defeat of the Chavin, before the beginning of our era, in Peru there are new civilization. Nevertheless, the Chavin pretty much effect on their appearance, especially in art and ideology. Way of the impact is far from clear. For example, residents of the northern coast, creating a culture Mochica, consciously imitated the ancient, long-disused vessels Chavin era, they are likely to find, as we do in the old graves. Southern Culture on the central coast and particularly the Christian era Chavin influenced less, but due to his clearly felt for many hundreds of kilometers to the southeast, on the shores of Lake. Titicaca, ie, where similar to Chavín monuments just absolutely was not. Through the Mochica and other centers of the indirect influence of the Chavin penetrated century Peruvian civilization, which it found the Spaniards in the XVI century.
Mystery of the underground labyrinths
Now we can perhaps say that the main problems Chavin - the origin and destruction of this culture, its economic fundamentals - in principle solved, at least in the directions for future research that will someday discuss these issues in detail.However, the temple on the banks of Mosna, not to mention other centers, much less studied, yet hides a lot of secrets. Among the mysteries encountered in the recent excavations of Peruvian archaeologists - the appointment and the dating of certain underground galleries.
In 1966 - 1967's. in underground passageways called Ofrendas Rokas and discovered two sets of ornamented pottery. They have the same names as their own passages. Ofrendas complex was found in a rectangular room, leaving a straight corridor connecting them. Galleries of this type are found mainly in the array of masonry church buildings and have sophisticated ventilation devices, mines, which form long, horizontal moves. The walls are built of hewn galleries and plates were apparently covered with clay and painted. On the floor of the corridor was found in Ofrendas female skull, bordered forty children's baby teeth - evidence is committed ceremonies. Rokas complex found in the gallery, which represented a narrow underground passage of the curve without the side rooms, Gone far beyond the buildings of the temple. In contrast to the type Ofrendas galleries, the walls of galleries such as Rokas built of unhewn stones, and ventilation systems in them are short vertical shaft.
The researchers had no doubt that the picture type Rokas built before Ofrendas.Hence it was concluded that the pottery and Rokas older. It is well consistent with the fact that the complex represented Rokas vessels, which are widespread in the first half of the II millennium BC. Oe. in Ecuador and in the far north of Peru. In Ofrendas such vessels do not, and this was seen as a complex formed later in the Chavin de Huantar. In support of this evidence and the fact that this pottery is more refined, carefully trim and ornamentation. However, in 1972 during excavations proved that the oldest is a complex Ofrendas, although the assumption that older gallery Ofrendas Rokas, has ceased to exist when it opened the floor hole vertical ventilation shaft that runs from the bottom of the dug deeper into the gallery type Rokas. It is clear that ceramics found in the gallery Rokas, got there much later, after this passage was built. But if the gallery Ofrendas synchronous ancient temple construction phase, when the galleries were dug Rokas type? Is the period when the temple itself was not yet? And why do we need these long been the catacombs, misleading to many tens of meters beyond the central structures of Chavin, whose remains are found all the new places? In contrast, relatively spacious (more than 1 m wide) galleries Ofrendas type, connected with small rooms, galleries, Rokas type because of its narrowness and curvature (up to 80 cm) were hardly suitable for use as a space - whether it be storage or place of commission of some kind of cult act.This is exactly the moves that leads to nowhere.
Let's hope that the ongoing work of Peruvian scientists and disclose the secret.
Disappeared people. Collection of articles (based on the journal "Nature") / Ed.Doctor. Hist. Science PI Puchkov. M., "Science", 1988. S. 139-147.
An ancient civilization in Central part of the mountain of Peru (Huari culture)
The central mountain area stretches from Lake Junin and the origins of p. Mantaro in the north to the headwaters of the rivers Apurimac and Vilcanota in the south. Glen Mantaro runs from northwest to southeast, then turning to the northeast. Towards the south it carries the waters of Apurimac. In the upper reaches it has an extensive network of tributaries, the most important of which - p. Pampas - comes close to the lower reaches of the Mantaro. Parallel to the valley of the Apurimac valley is Vilcanota - Urubamba, sandwiched between the Cordillera mountain ranges to the west and Vilkabamba Cordillera Vilcanota to the east. All the rivers in this region, merging to form p. Ucayali - one of the sources of the Amazon.
Huari culture
Ancient ruins of Huari located on a promontory between the ravines, whose surface is staggered. At the bottom of which many remains of buildings, walls, terraces and other structures. The total area of the monument reaches 1.5-2 square meters. km.
Bennett (2) laid in a dozen different locations of the stratigraphic shuftov. These excavations have allowed to study the sequence of occurrence of pottery in the cultural layer, but have not figured out its connection with the monuments. Almost all of his monument in the complex remains unexplored archaeologically. In its vicinity there are several points where the pottery was found, similar to the material of the Huari.
Building remains
Huari stone buildings are many and varied. One of the biggest and most well-preserved buildings - La Capilla, or Capilla Pata. This is a large building, consisting of high (up to 8 m) walls, built of small stones on the rough clay mortar. Wall thickness decreases from 2-2.5 m at the base to 0,80-1,00 m at the top. These walls enclose an area of 50x50 m area are no passages in them are not detected.Windows either. In general, doors and windows are very rare in the buildings of Huari. Within the walls of La Capilla done a lot of small square indentations. This part is quite common in other buildings, and sometimes these are deepening in one horizontal row.
In addition to buildings such as La Capilla, in Huari is artificial hills, retaining walls and other structures. North of the two artificial hills, bearing the same name Kanteron, reaches a height of 8 m and has a length of 100 m and a width of 75 m. On top of it - a deepening of 50 m long, 25 meters, a depth of about 8m. The walls of the indentation lined with rough stones. They are large niches (width of about 1.70 m, depth of about 2.00 m) coated plates, and cut stone.
Ashlar and lined underground chamber, as described by Bennett. They are found in different places and monuments of various sizes. Complex set of cameras located just south of the central part of the monument. On the surface of the land was back door, which is closely surrounded by walls of rough stone. It consisted of four stones with round holes. Its total length (from north to south) and 4.62 m, width (from east to west), 2.25 m. This cover covers the room height of 1.80 m, which had no input. Its floor, consisting of three panels with the same hole, the lower chamber served as a ceiling, under which there was another floor. In the east wall of the second tier of cells was made by a doorway that connects with the deep (2.65 m) well, which came out on the ground next to the main chamber and covered with a stone slab. In the vicinity of these cameras are placed two more who had the simplest device. The appointment of these structures is unclear.
These are most clearly described in the literature building. Others just mentioned.Widely noted, however, the use of two construction techniques: rough stone masonry and the use of hewn slabs and blocks. Bennett suggests that they are at different times: built of hewn stone somewhat older than the masonry of rough stone. But he does not consider it proven. However, the niche of the northern Kanterona and how accurately entered the underground chamber in the complex contours of the rough stone walls, - all this makes rather assume that both the construction techniques are inseparable, and each has a special meaning.
A peculiar structure found in Huari, near the city of Huancayo Uilka, where the ruins of the walls of a thickness of 5 m around irregular quadrangle, representing an in antiquity probably a great platform with sides of length 40-50 m and a height of more than 5 m on the platform at some distance from front wall is a retaining wall of the second step platform height of 4-5 meters. At this stage, are seen traces of the third wall. Masonry walls of small rough stones, stacked so that it seems the series, reminds masonry Huari.
Sculpture
Of Huari statues are a few that do not have a more accurate passport. Most of them are located in the surrounding Hacienda monument or museum. Bennett refers to eight copies.
Huari statues are standing human figure no higher than 1.50 m. The mind usually frontlet, which often rises above the turban. From under the bandage on his shoulders, covering his ears, often comes down coat, turning on his back in a short cloak. The head is disproportionately large, square face, which are allocated large oval eyes, circled convex roller, and a wide nose.
In a similar manner, usually transmitted mouth and ears. At a short stocky torso wearing something like a shirt, a belt hooked. Hands of statues or elongated along the torso, or flexed at the elbow, and lie on his chest, squeezing an object. Brush over the grooves often performed, depicting the end of the strap or sleeves. Legs are usually repulsed. All the sculptures are very similar to each other. The initial position of the sculptures on the monument entirely clear. Accordingly, the impossible, and their interpretation.
Ceramics
Abundant ceramic material is very diverse both in form and in ornamentation. The most common large and small vessels with a round torso and bowls. Rounded vessels have vertical or deflected halo. They often have large loop-shaped handle extending from the coronet to the shoulders, and placed horizontally or vertically on the walls of the vessel. Role play pens and high modeled relief images with holes.On the side of the vessel is sometimes spout. The bowls have a direct radiating, concave, convex and vertical walls. Sometimes the corolla is bent. Some bowls also have noses. On thick-walled bowls with radiating edges meet broad horizontal handles in the form of a loop. We found several miskoobraznyh Tripods.
Numerous thick-walled vessels and large with a rounded, somewhat oblong and torso with widely divergent vertiklnym or throat. On the body sometimes has vertical handles. Throat often takes the form of the head with a raised face. In this case, the torso is usually painted in the form of a human figure. Frequent round-bowl, sometimes with a beveled inside rim.
Interesting findings cups - "Kero" typical Bolivian Tiaunako. They often have a convex or a belt at the top of the mask or sculpture.
There are round vessels with a long tapering neck and off of it a wide handle and double-figured vessels. Generally found many fragments of simulated vessels.Sometimes, such as long tapering necks are dvugorlym vessels.
Ornamentation painted pottery found on the site of Huari, very diverse. Most of the wreckage belongs to the so-called Huari Group. Numerous geometric shapes - a step, crosses, intersecting lines, bands, circles, dots, wavy lines, S-shaped elements, etc. Here and complex motifs representing plants, animals, and these cheloveka.Stilistika scene images is very similar to the methods of art Bolivian culture of Tiwanaku. The human figure is drawn with a square face, oval or round eyes, from which the cheeks are "tears." In similar style, and painted glassware with sculpted masks.
Abundant in the group of Huari zoomorphic and floral motifs. Particularly prevalent and cougars condor's head, often associated with jewelry clothing and headdresses of human figures. These images, as well as floral motifs, with their sharp, curved lines at right angles, are very close to the characteristic tiauakakskomu style.
Colours hand-painted glassware Huari Group is different. Here there are monochrome and polychrome vessels, sometimes using up to seven colors at once.Suitable black, white, yellow, gray, purple and orange painted on a red background.
Another group of ceramic - Ayacucho. Among the reasons for painting a lot of extremely stylized zoomorphic images, elements of floral ornament and other subjects. Straight sharp lines with no right angles. A soft, curved contours. The color scheme is rich. Mostly common combination of three to five colors, but sometimes one is a fragment, and six colors.
Another group - ceramics Akuchimay. The painting of this group entirely geometric.The most typical pattern - repeating zigzag horizontal stripes, and color of their alternate. There are rows of triangles and lines. Frequent ribbons and points in a semicircle, and interlocking zigzags. Sometimes a dish is placed heavily stylized face. Occasionally come across an image in relief. Polychrome painting (red, purple, white, yellow, orange, black, red and brown). Used up to four colors at once.However, the color palette is soft, muted.
Stone, bone, shell, metal
At Huari met obsidian tools. Among them, knives, choppers and oval spear. Their edges are processed by pressure retouch. In addition they found the stone tops and fragments of stone mace bowls or mortars.
Quite a few bone objects: point, spoons, plates. They sometimes suffer simple carvings. There are also ornaments of drilled shells.
At Huari found only a few metal objects, and a very poor state of preservation. In private collections stored gold and silver objects that happen to this monument.
Huari culture belonged to settle down, most likely an agricultural population engaged, apparently, the entire territory of the Central Mining District. Pottery of this culture met far to the south-east, about Sikuani. Huari itself is a type of fortified military settlement settlement, is well protected by natural boundaries, which in several places reinforced walls. At a later time around there were small settlements, gravitated to the Huari as the center. People living here have made great strides in the art of stone working.
Traces of Huari culture and were found near the city of Cuzco (located in a small mountain valley of the eastern slope of the Andes, a tributary of the river valley. Vilcanota, or Urubamba, at an altitude of 3500 m above sea level).
Despite the European conquest, some local cultures could be preserved: the Quechua and Aymara in Peru and Bolivia; Araucania in Chile; Tupi, Carib, Arawak, toucans and ANSPs in Guiana, the same tribes in eastern Brazil, as well as the extinct culture today people of Tierra del land, for example, people selknam.
The first attempt to give a synthetic analysis of the history of the beliefs of the South American continent was the book by Lawrence Sullivan "Icanchu's Drum", 1988.Anyone who wishes to deepen their knowledge in this area can now apply to his work, written based on a wide range of readers.
Region of the Andes. Great cultures of the Andes, among which the most famous is the culture of the Incas (XV cent.) Occurred in the high valleys, where people began to settle for ten thousand years ago. By the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire covered vast areas of the west coast, from Peru to Chile. In 1532 the Inca empire collapsed, and its last ruler was beheaded by the conquerors.
The ancient period. Farming in the Peruvian coast are about three thousand years after the migration of peoples from the north, that is much earlier than the transhumant pastoralists and traces of agricultural culture dates back to 700 ADAround 2500 BC climatic changes have resulted in economic changes: there was a transition from gathering to settled cultivation of vegetables. Hunting was not developed the necessary protein foods, people received on fishing. Maize, which grows in Central America for more than sixty thousand years, is distributed in Peru around 1400 BC, and by 900 BC people have grown to an improved grade. At the same time, a system of irrigation, will promote the development of advanced agriculture, and as a consequence, there is a state in charge of water distribution, it is possible that existing at the time of the religious cult celebrates the mythical origins of a new civilization unparalleled in the region. This period corresponds to the cultural complex, found in Chavin, on the northern plateau, while on the south coast at that time dominated the culture, leaving behind a huge necropolis in the caves of Parakou. Unfortunately with the exception of architectural monuments, information about the cult of Chavin did not survive, so the value of it inaccessible to our understanding. The main deity of the cult, which took shape of an animal breed cats (jaguar, puma, or), for five hundred years enjoyed huge popularity in the Andean region.
Around 3000 BC traces the cultural unity of the Andes disappear suddenly, but agriculture continues to evolve: reclaim new species of plants, terraced farming is practiced. The only cemetery in Parakou, containing 429 mummies of the local nobility, indicates that the methods of burial, and the belief in the afterlife have been changed.
Around 200 AD culture, representing the transitional period, reaching its peak of prosperity. Culture of these theocratic, omnipotent deity in the main these is the animal of the breed of cat, human sacrifices to the gods, and, like its predecessors, appears totally inexplicable interest in the human skull, from the birth baby's skull is deformed carefully, and then, throughout the life , the skull is repeatedly exposed craniotomy, the same procedure is carried out after death, skull collecting enemies as war trophies.
Although the coastal valleys were never overcrowded, had they lived far more people than now. In that society reigned wealth, religious beliefs encourage people to create advanced technologies and implement bold projects, the design of which was on the verge of human capabilities, such projects include the construction of a 113-meter channel La Cumbre, which exists to this day.
One of these cultures, the culture Mochica, threw up huge temples, the most famous of which are two of the pyramid called the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. The images on ceramic tiles suggest that urine practiced circumcision, and to heal resorted to shamans conjure disease, which saw them quite tangible objects. Ideograms preserved, applied to the fruits of legumes. In a theocratic society urine enjoyed special honor caste of priests. The role of women is strictly limited to the domestic hearth.
Coastal culture Nazca, Mochica culture today, left us as many trophies flattened skulls, painted and strung in garlands to them it was easier to transport. On the brown cliffs of the valley Palpa Nasca created huge paintings, clearly intended for contemplation above some celestial deity, these figures reflect a certain system of astronomical knowledge and their meaning to us for the most part unclear.
By the end of the period megalithic civilization Tiaunako (Bolivia) has the same cultural impact on the peoples inhabiting the Andes, which at an earlier age provided the Chavin culture. Megalithic structures erected at a height of 4000 meters, form the world's only settlement with stepped pyramids, with gates put on them in concentric circles, squares, water tanks, and statues. When the fort was abandoned, its construction has not yet been completed.
Around 1000 AD in the Andes established socio-political system, reminiscent of western feudalism. In the north there is the kingdom of Chimu, the most powerful in this period, it subdues a lot of valleys, each of which constructed its own urban center. The capital of the Kingdom of Chan Chan (near Trujillo) is a remarkable monument of urban planning: the city, where more than fifty thousand inhabitants, was divided into ten rectangular blocks, and each of them had their homes, water tanks and temples of the pyramids.
Amazing story. The base of the Inca Empire, referring to 1200 BC, is attributed to the mythical hero of Manco Capac and his sister, settled in the valley of Cuzco. Inca state began to actively extend only from the eighth emperor Viracocha Inca Pachacutec and his son, who inherited his father's throne around 1438 to 1493, when the son died Topa Inca Pachacutec, the territory of the empire was already five thousand kilometers length, and the emperor ruled the lands from Ecuador to the middle of Chile. The establishment of this empire can be equated to the exploits and Alexander of Macedon and Napoleon. All the more surprising that such a vast area has managed to capture only a handful of Spanish adventurers. After the death of Huayna Capac in 1525 began the internecine war between two of his sons, Huáscar (settled in Cuzco), and Atahualpa (settled in Quito, Ecuador). Atahualpa defeated, and in 1532 he was proclaimed emperor. Pizarro, attracted by tales of fabulous gold placers of Peru, landed on the coast of this state with one hundred and eighty of the soldiers. Since then, religion is closely intertwined with the story.Atahualpa decided that Pizarro - this is the great god Viracocha, who returned to earth with his retinue, to proclaim the end of the world. Pizarro took advantage of it and made the emperor his prisoner without resistance on his part. Atahualpa was able to collect a ransom for himself to the brim filled his cell with gold, but the freedom it will still not returned. Sentenced to death, he received Christian baptism, then it did not burn at the stake, as agreed, but only a strangled - August 29, 1533 And forty years later he was beheaded last pretender to the throne of the Incas.
The beliefs of the Incas. In the communist empire of the Incas official religion - and this was the religion of the Quechua of Cuzco, who had, most likely, many features in common with its smaller assimilated cults - was in charge of the state. Of the three plots of land, which handles the farmer, the first section was dedicated to God, the second - the emperor, and only the third was intended to feed his family. Sacred objects, or Huaca, the conquered peoples solemnly carried to Cuzco and stacked in the sanctuary, where they look at the pilgrims from distant provinces. The category of Huaca could treat all endowed with sacred properties: hills, rocks, trees - anything that was not clear or is dire.
The device of the Inca empire around like a rational utopia, stories about her, reaching to the top of the XVII century. Europe is undoubtedly influenced by Tommaso Campanella. Church of the Incas has a marvelous organization and covered the entire state system as a whole. In the center of it all stood the emperor, who personified the State Act, and God himself. Being himself Huaca, it was equal to the One who has no equal, the god Viracocha, born from the foam of the waters of Lake Titicaca and disappeared in the foam of the ocean, going on its waters to the north-west, in the direction from which in 1532 sailed Pizarro and his men .
The Metaphysics of Viracocha is very complex. He the creator of the natural and social world order, which explains his ascent to the top of the pantheon of the Incas, central to which is the sun. He is dedicated to the biggest temple in Cuzco. Inca temples were closed to the faithful. They lived the priests and virgins of the sun, selected among the girls with an impeccable reputation and educated at public expense, in order to become a vestal virgin, or, or second wives of important officials, or even the emperor himself. If the emperor "sinned" with one of the Vestals, was enough for him to admit his wrongdoing, but if such a misdeed committed any of his subjects, that he was immediately put to death along with his mistress.
In the temples of the Sun was represented in the form of anthropomorphic statues and huge gold discs. If the emperor was considered the son of the Sun, the empress proclaimed daughter of the moon, sister, wife of the Sun, in the temples of her image was presented in the form of silver anthropomorphic statues. The Incas used the lunar calendar in the main, but not neglected, and solar. Important deities were Pachacamac, god of the earth, with his infernal wife Pachamama, and Illapa, the god of disposing of the weather.
At the top hierarchy of the Church was the great priest, a close relative of the emperor, when it consisted of nine council, whose members were the "Incas by privilege." The priests always made inspection trips to the provinces, where the cult has long been the guardians sent Huaca, voluntary priests who did not receive remuneration for their activities from the public treasury. The temples were not the place for meetings. Collective rituals are often accompanied by the sacrifice of animals occurred in the central squares, the ceremony were both redemptive and prophetic. The victims, most pleasing to the gods, considered to be a decade of children, elected for their moral and physical perfection, the victims were happy just to get directly into the otherworldly kingdom prepared for, as was usual, only the nobility. In contrast to the customs of the Aztecs and Mayans similar customs, human sacrifices practiced by the Incas are rare. Even more rarely staged mass slaughter, like a bloody ceremonies of the Aztecs, when the sacrifice was the strongest and most enduring war.
As in Egypt, the Inca priests charge of all that related to health - as a "body politic" of the state and its citizens, accumulating, thus, responsible for the duties of sacrifice, soothsayers, sorcerers and shamans. Like Babylon bar, they predicted the future by studying the entrails of sacrificial animals. They also practiced the treatment of disease through aspiration of pathogenic substances that caused the imbalance in the body. In addition, they were chiropractors and chiropractic movements returned to the place of disintegrated bodies, and also excellent surgeons who can carry out complex operations, such as craniotomy, the real purpose which in many cases, escapes us.
Unfortunately, the lack of written records created by the Incas, makes it impossible for a deeper knowledge of their beliefs. At the time, Spanish priests impressed existence of the Incas "monks" and "Sisters" (vestals of the sun), and the practice of secrecy of confession. However, the ability to understand the sophisticated Inca thought lost forever, and we end up with her scraps, simplified or distorted by alien invaders.
Religions of the rainforest. The huge jungle, which lie along the rivers Orinoco and Amazon, exciting and mountainous areas of Guyana, inhabited by numerous tribes speaking languages Arawak, Carib, Pano and Tupi. And although each group of people have their own religion, or a version thereof, all the cults of the region is there a lot in common - a mythological level, defined as Claude Levi-Strauss in his monumental work "Mithologiques", and at the level of ideas, practices and institutions, as concluded recently, Lawrence Sullivan.
The main deity of the region occupied an intermediate position between the Supreme Being and a cultural hero, culture hero function is expressed most clearly.As we noted above, the ethnologist A. Jensen, based on an analysis of mythological structures of Aboriginal Moluccas archipelago of Indonesia came to the conclusion that the numerous myths about the creation of the world are reduced to two archetypes, just for mythologies of the world: the myth of the gods deme, sacrificed and gave tuberous plants such as the life of potatoes, and the myth of Prometheus, in which the sky secretly steal cereals.
Lunar deity Moma uitoto Indians of northwestern Amazonia - pronounced deity deme, it does not correspond to the requirements of the celestial Supreme Being, who is seen as some ethnologists. The Indians of Guyana varikyana a sun-god-demiurge Pura, which periodically destroys the world; Pura much closer than the former deity, the Supreme Being, an exemplary embodiment of which is Deus otsiozus Karuskaybe other Caribbean people - munduruku. In fact, creating a world of things and the human world, Karuskaybe, mortally wounded men, retired to the inaccessible areas of the sky. When the end of the world, he will come back to burn the fire of humanity.
The bottom-line belief of Indians of tropical forest is the existence of the invisible world, interacting with everyday life, but to come into contact with this world is possible only in case of changes in the state of consciousness, the latter occurs during sleep, in trance, when inhaled drugs, which occur after the vision; some people are predisposed to mysteriously like contacts, this predisposition is both natural and acquired through special training. Both worlds intersect, creatures from another world can enter the human world, taking, as usual, the shape of animals such as caiman, anaconda, jaguar, or a hawk, but only an expert can identify the animal in the guise of supreme substance. All can have their counterparts in the invisible world; sanema Indians living on the border between Brazil and Venezuela, even distinguish eight categories hevkula or hidden creatures.
Among the various spirits in many cults, the central place occupied by the Lords of the animals, because they set the number of animals and fish intended for consumption.
No less important are the spirits of ancestors, as they remain invisible, continue to participate in the life of the living. From a few souls, vested in the person, the one that survives his physical death, may attend live and sometimes even benefit from them. Representations of the South American Indians of the soul differ primarily from three major exercises, common in both the East and in the religions of the Mediterranean: from metampsihozy, tradutsianizma, born anew. Indians believe in the existence of a reservoir with a mental substance, where the soul returns, and how to dissolve it to the indeterminate state. To liven up the new man, he must pass a particle of this substance.Indians in eastern Ecuador, hut believe in the multiplicity of souls, they distinguish "normal" soul of the soul "perfect" and the soul, "vindictive." Normal soul is at all mortals, the perfect soul is acquired only after contact with the invisible world.However, the hovel of a person prefer to drive out the perfect soul, because for her, he begins to crave blood. After killing the enemy, a person may purchase a second, a perfect soul, becoming the owner of two perfect souls, he becomes invulnerable.Not being able to own more than two perfect souls, however, he can now take advantage of the power contained in other souls.
Vengeful spirit appears after the death of the owner of a perfect soul, she wants revenge for the murder. Therefore, hut practice drying heads of their enemies, because they believe that by doing so vengeful soul will remain in the head as in a trap.
An expert on religious cults in the South American Indians is a shaman, whose responsibilities include the healing diseases as society as well as physical diseases generated pathogenic human occupancy in the spirits of the invisible world.
It is clear that religious faiths of the South American Indians have an unusually complex structure that permeates the whole of their culture as a whole, so that separate "secular" aspect of "religious" is almost impossible. In fact, for each of us, peace is a universal thought process, no place for division of operations: there is no clear boundary between those when we stop to think "secular" and begin to think "religion", or vice versa. "Sacred" and "worldly" invariably overlap, speak the same language and with one voice pronounced the same "word".
The beliefs of the Gran Chaco. Plain of the Gran Chaco (Quechua Chaco means "hunting ground") is located in the heart of the South American continent, between Mato Grosso and Pampa. Indians live here, speaking in tongues zamuko, Tupi-Guarani, Mataco-poppy-guaykuru kaduveo and Arawaks. All the tribes in the region practiced shamanism and believe in the supernatural creatures that inhabit the unseen world, coexists with our world. In Native American myths tell of the origin of the world, plant, animal, human, and the initiation of shamans. Among the supernatural beings are the Supreme Being, to varying degrees, fused together with cultural heroes or gods of the EMA, heroes, stole, like Prometheus, cereals and / or fire, and the Tricksters, crafty creatures found in myths of the peoples of the Americas (as well as in other continents) and to varying degrees, endowed with the creative functions. In the mythology of the tribes of the region face of all these religious things a little vague.
Beliefs Pampas, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Today, a number of tribes in the region have already disappeared from the face of the earth, but ethnographers have time to study them. Particular attention was paid to the beliefs of the Indians of Tierra del Zemi (selknam or she, or yahana Yamana and alakaluf), in which there is the Supreme Being. In this god selknam Temakuel, retired into the sky, leaving ancestors Keno solve the problem of ordering the world. Selknam not often bother Temakuelya requests, but every day brought him a sacrifice to eat.
Millentarizma movement among the Tupi-Guarani of Mato Grosso arose shortly after the arrival of European colonizers. In 1539 twelve thousand Tupi fled to Brazil in search of Earth-Where-No-Evil, arrived in Peru, it was found that, after passing the Indians remained no more than three thousand. The remaining ruined famine and disease. In 1602 the Jesuits prevented the outcome of three thousand Indians from the region of Bahia, headed by a prophet (page), the Indians were going to go in search of Earth-Where-No-Evil. Such migration continued until the twentieth century.Such self-destructive enterprises have many explanations, these phenomena are usually regarded as a "Messiaen", borrowed from a local or introduced by the crops, or as a "movement of the oppressed peoples" (to what the Tupi are not treated), or as a mechanism of internal regulation of the society, by trying to self-destruction to protect itself from public institutions (E. Lay).
Mircea Eliade, Ion Kuliano. Dictionary of religions, rituals and beliefs (series "Myth, Religion, Culture"). - Moscow, Foreign Literature, "Rudomino", St. Petersburg, "University Book", 1997. S. 40-51.
An ancient civilization of the North Mountain of Peru (the Chavin culture)
The Central Andes stretching along the Pacific coast of South America's band, whose length is about 1,800 km (north-west to south-east), the width of 300-400 km.This includes most of the Peruvian and Bolivian Antiplano. This area is divided into two sharply distinct parts: the Coast - Pacific Coast and the Sierra - the ridges and valleys. It is here that have emerged and developed high cultures predinkskogo time.
The mountainous part Tsenralnyh Andes - Sierra - is a series of ridges height of nearly 7000 m above sea level, going from northwest to southeast. They are separated by deep and narrow river valleys. Almost all rivers are the Amazon basin.They are great and abounding. Band of mountains extends to the south, where lies the mountain plateau - the Altiplano, or Puna.
Climatic conditions vary greatly and the Sierras vary the height of the terrain. Usually there are four climatic zones. Lower, "Tierra Caliente" (to a height of 1,000 - 1,500 m above sea level) - hot. following it, "Thiers templeyada" (up to 2000-2800 m) has a temperate climate. Above are "Tierra Fria" (up to 3200-3500 m) with low positive temperatures and "Tierra elyada" (above 3500 m) with a very harsh climate.Seasonal variations in temperature in all areas of the Sierras are small. Vegetation, especially in the upper zones is rather scarce.
The most characteristic animal of the Central Andes - Lama - lives here and is particularly prevalent in the southern Sierra, where there are also guanaco, vicuna and alpaca. Here live cougar, puma or, foxes and large birds of prey - condors.
The geographical scope of the district of North Sierra practically coincide with the basin of the upper reaches of rivers Maranon and Huallaga, flowing from the south-east to north-west and Central Cordillera mountain range divided. The same applies to the area and Kalehon de Uaylas - closed on all sides by mountains valley of the upper reaches of the river. Santa empties into the Pacific Ocean.
Chavin Culture
One of the major cultures of ancient Peru - Chavin derives its name from the village of Chavin de Huantar on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Blanca, near which is the main monument of the culture. Here, on one of the smaller tributaries of the left.Maranon, stand the ruins of an ancient building complex, which most archaeologists viewed as a temple.
Building remains
The basic construction of the monument is almost square platform (75h72, 50 m) whose walls are built of stone, lying flat, with two rows of narrow slabs interspersed with a number of plates of greater thickness. The height of the walls in the south-western most corner of the surviving buildings up to 9.50 m. At this height the wall is a ledge width of 2.50 m, above which rises a second platform height as 2.50 m. On the upper floor are visible traces of stone buildings.
At the level of the ledge mentioned in ancient times acted cornice of stone slabs overhanging the wall. End, and speaking of the bottom plates were decorated with carvings. Below the cornice was a series of sculptural heads with a human face that has many fantastic features. These goals are behind the ledge, with which they were mounted in a masonry wall.
From the east to the top of the building that bears the name of Castillo in the literature and conducted a staircase, found HS Tello. However, earlier entrance to the summit located about midway east side of the building, whose basement was lined large slabs. On either side of a stepped entrance stood two round columns decorated with carved figures of fantastical creatures. South tower was made of white, and the north - from the black stone. They once supported huge stone lintel carved with images of condors, which was found broken into pieces near the towers. This entry was called Black and White Portal.
The space inside is filled with retaining walls Castillo earth and broken stone, and this sequence is penetrated by numerous underground galleries. Along with the high and quite wide corridors are met fairly narrow shaft, probably intended for ventilation and drainage. Corridors and stairs are provided with recesses and lead to other tunnels or small rooms. The walls are lined with galleries of the same masonry as the exterior. The ceilings are made of large plates, overlapping the entire passage, or based on a slightly advanced stone walls. These galleries are in all likelihood, several floors.
To the north-western corner of the Castillo is adjacent to the north is quite narrow embankment. It is one of the most interesting objects in the monument - statue of the deity, which stands in an underground room. In the literature it has received the name of Lanson. Embankment joins the two hills, and hiding in his thick ancient structures.
Eastward façade Castillo goes on a broad (25 m) terrace, which encircles the building and on the south side (where it reaches a width of only 9 m). The height of the terrace to the east, where it has a retaining wall, 2.50 m.
Thus, Castillo stands as it were on the platform. Immediately before it is ground, bounded on the north and south elevations of the rectangular, apparently the remains of buildings.
The size and decoration of the walls and the entrance to the Castillo suggest its public buildings, and the appointment of a religious statue shows the deity in the interior of buildings and an abundance of stones carved with fantastic creatures in a very specific and traditional style.
Another architectural complex of Chavin culture was found in Kuntur Huasi, on the watershed between the valleys of the rivers Marañón and Pacasmayo. Here, open structure in the form of a three pyramids on top of which are the ruins of buildings.On the surface, found numerous stone slabs decorated with carvings, sculptures, ornamental head, is inserted into the masonry walls and other architectural details typical of the style of Chavin.
Sculpture
At Chavin de Huantar and other monuments of this culture found many monoliths carved with figures. Most often it is flat stones, covered with images in low relief.Less common round sculpture.
The central figure in art Chavin culture - a predator of the cat family, whose prototype was probably a jaguar or puma. His full image appears, however, are quite rare.Most vividly the image transferred to the eaves plates Castillo, where the predator cut standing in profile, with bared mouth and a long tail whose end is twisted into a ring. The body is covered with highly stylized images of faces predator. On the back and chest - the tabs in the form of heads of snakes (?). On the feet - large curved claws. This image was, apparently, canonical, since it is repeated in a flat carving and sculpture in the bulk. Sometimes the beast is depicted lying.
Besides the main image, the art of the Chavin culture prevalent images of fantastic creatures, composed of various elements belonging and animals and man.
The images in the group of anthropomorphic creatures tend to have a human figure, but endowed with a predator mouth with characteristic protruding fangs and claws on animals' feet and hands. In order to complete the monstrous appearance of these fantastic creatures of their long hair often end with snake (?) Heads. Headgear or hairstyles for Lanson and Raimondi Stela consist of repeating stylized heads of predators.
Two complex images carved on the pillars black and white portal. This is a monster with a human torso en face, spread wide wings of an eagle and shown in profile, face koshacheo predator looking up. By the muzzle put in charge of the hooked beak of an eagle. In the lowered feet horizontally monster holding spear throwers. In these complex shapes are mounted features feline predator, the condor and the man.
The image of the condor is also very common. Eight core image of the mighty birds adorn the stone lintel of Black and White Portal. Seven of them are turning to the left, face the eighth. Although these reliefs torso always looks like the bird, the scheme of the head is the same as that of the monsters in black and white portal: this feline predator's head with the oversight of the front beak. Several images condor with outstretched wings is closer to the figures of columns. Feet apart condors, and the tail is cut in the form of a broad fan. The head is made as well as in the previous case, and looking up.
Much less common image of the snake with the head of feline predator. These snakes are carved on the ends of the cornice board Castillo. By the same token polymorphism and built an image of fish with a cat's head to face the beast on Stela Tello and on the stone of Yauyya.
Stylistically carving Chavin culture is characterized by straight lines, rounded corners, an abundance of ornamental detail, covering the entire piece so that it is sometimes difficult to understand the scheme itself an image. As a general rule, elements of the ornament consists of multiple parts of an image repeated feline predator. Most often it is the head, or just mouth with fangs, or eye. A common feature - the head of "snakes" on a long neck. More likely, these "snakes" are a very simplified diagram of the same head predator.
On the monuments of Chavin culture found a small group of images, which, being close to those described above, stylistically somewhat different from them. They all have important differences from the classical sculptures Chavin culture.
Perhaps the closest thing to classical figures carved on the two bars that go back to his scheme for a condor with outstretched wings. One of them has a head with the oversight of the predator bill. The interpretation of the wings and other parts different from the classic: straight lines and rounded corners are replaced by curved lines, ornamental snout and mouth turned into geometrical patterns, not entirely fill the space, and the whole figure became more dynamic.
Among the images in this group more anthropomorphic creatures, and there are as fantastic images of the human body and animal jaws, wings or beak-to-face oversight of the condor, and human images. Part of the figure in a fairly realistic predator treatment. Very unique and unusual for classical image transfer in the form of the eye cup with the adjacent two triangles.
In general, this group, although it differs more realistic, dynamic and less ornamental image is closely associated with classical statues Chavin culture both in composition and in the interpretation of the main images.
Ceramics
Most of the dishes featuring distinctive style found on the monuments of the Chavin Peruvian coast. In the mountains - the main area of distribution of this culture - ceramics occurs most commonly in fragments, which in combination with a few whole vessels can get some idea of the Chavin culture dish. Distribute widely been open flat-bottomed bowl, spherical vessels and bottles with high cylindrical or slightly tapering neck, swelling, and whisk round torso. There are also vessels with stremevidnym throat - a form that has long remained a characteristic of northern Peru.
Dishes were richly ornamented. Technique of the ornament is very diverse. Here and cutting, and wide grooves and impressions of stamps, and pinhole.Occasionally come across relief or relief images ukrashenich type rollers. The motives of ornamentation is also varied. There are tapes, limited cutting and filled pinhole or cutting inside. Very characteristic circles and circles with a dot. Often on the dishes carved lines are plotted zoomorphic images, stylized in a manner typical for sculpture.
Unfortunately, neither the burial nor things (except ceramics), which could be regarded as unquestionably belonging to the Chavin culture, has not yet been studied.
Ceramics with ornaments coated with white paint on a red background clay, common in northern Peru. But the monuments of Northern Sierra, where it was found, it is inexpressive and not subjected to special scrutiny. Burials with dishes having a painting, cut the cultural layer at Chavin de Huantar. However, the description of the burial structures and burial ceremonies in the publication WKBennett is not given.
It found only vessels with straight diverging walls, bowls with convex sides and dishes. The bottoms of most round. Painted ware "combinations of lines of horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines, wavy lines, triangles, filled dots and circles."
The lifetime of the monuments of this pottery in the north of Peru mining rather vague. What is clear is that they are younger than the Chavin culture.
Chavin Culture
(On paper by Yu Berezkin "Chavin" in the book. "Disappeared People")
Chavin. It's exotic name has long worried the minds of archaeologists Americanists.Chavin issue devoted to scientific conferences and polemical articles. Typical images of deities with bared fanged mouth can be found on the stamps of the Republic of Peru and in the pages of popular foreign magazines. Happily enlivened with the word "Chavin" supporters of trans-oceanic and inter-planetary contacts: a mysterious civilization - a welcome material for any speculation. A mystery indeed a lot. But first a few words about the proper Chavin, more precisely, of Chavin de Huantar - ancient ruins, which gave name to the culture and are its most striking and remarkable monument.
The temple in the valley
Chavin de Huantar located in the northern mountains of Peru at an altitude of 3170 m above sea level, at the confluence of Mosna (a tributary of Marani-ones) with a small stream Vacheksoy. The ruins of this monument is located between the shore of the river and the grassy hillside. Dominates over the ruins of a building of rectangular shape (75h72 m) in the form of steep truncated pyramid, dubbed by locals "Castillon" - a fortress. The title is, of course, conditional. This is not a fortress, a temple. The height of the pyramid more than 13 m. Its walls are built of hewn stone slabs smoothly and were adorned with relief friezes and stone heads of deities, the speakers of the masonry. On the site now there were only a block of stone with pictures snakes and jaguars and one head. The remaining stones with images stored in various collections and museums, or hit the home of the surrounding farmers.
In 50 years on the east side of the pyramid was unearthed a monumental portal - framing stairs with her two pillars. The northern half of the portal is composed of dark slabs, the south - from light. Does this ladder to the roof - on the right and left divergent steps you can go upstairs.
Before the portal, the pyramid is a range of platforms, plazas, and staircases, and all around the center of the territory of at least 0.5 square meters. km visible mounds, apparently hiding the remains of the houses.
From the north to the pyramid adjacent to two array of masonry at a height and strongly swollen. It remains older than the pyramid of the building, which had a plan shaped U. The southern wing of this part later was incorporated into the masonry of the pyramid, and the northern extension is made, so that the entire complex was again U-shaped.
In 1972 he formed inside this ancient building has been excavated rectangular yard diameter circular area of 21 m, surrounded by a wall height of 1 m. The walls were faced with slabs with images of people or deities and jaguars. From west to east and down the stairs from the area of light granite, each with 7 steps. Light stone has been paved and the area itself, but the staircase connects the path of the black plates.
In the XVI century. it was known that within the Chavín monumental buildings have rooms rather narrow corridors. Many generations of eager gold hunters tore poluzasypannye inputs and with candles and torches in their hands climbed the tangled maze. In most corridors gold hunters found only in bats, but when they made their way to the cross-shaped building in the central part of the building (right of stairs led him hidden from the eyes of a circular area), covering the horror newcomers, and they hurried to get out into fresh air. In the middle aisle stood a huge monolith in the form of frightening figures of snakes on her head and bared fanged mouth. In XIX-XX centuries. near the ruins have been found and other religious images carved on stone tablets and steles, including figures of anthropomorphic deities, mythical serpents, condors and jaguars, caimans and two, male and female, from the bodies which are the coca, cassava, and perhaps moresome plants.
Today's "Relic Hunters" less fearful, better equipped than their predecessors in the XVI-XIX centuries. And, most importantly interest not only in gold, so that their "research" certainly would have caused enormous damage to the monument, if not taken care of nature about its safety. January 17, 1945 as a result of glacial lake outburst in the upper Mosna Chavin was completely flooded and filled with a thick layer of mud. After becoming less accessible to tourists and looters, he basically lived happily until the time when the shovel archaeologist finally touched the ancient stones.
The network of centers of the temple
During excavation works in 1946, Chavin Peruvian researchers LG Lumbreras and Amat EO focus turned to the study of internal galleries. We find that the void is only apparent. Under a layer of clay on the floor and corridors extending from the small rooms they were found broken blood vessels with images that are close in style as the images on different monumental reliefs of the Chavin de Huantar and painting pottery, found in different areas of Peru.
It is established that the architectural complex on the Mosna - not only the temple center, at the same time with him there were other, located within the area covering the northern mountains of Peru and northern and central part of the coast. In the mountains there are two of them: Pakopampa and Kuntur-Huasi, and facilities Pakopampy - one of the oldest. Studied this temple archaeologists date the earliest built in 1800 BC. Oe. Then Pakopampa falls under the influence of Chavin de Huantar, the church is expanding, but the local culture still retains considerable originality. Significantly different from the style of the actual chavinoidnoy and monumental sculpture, Kuntur Huasi. On the coast, churches, exhibiting varying degrees of closeness to the Chavin, Moche found in the valleys, Nepenya, Kasme, Chilon. Despite the distance from each other and originality of the different centers, they can see and similarities, especially in the layout (U-shaped form of many complexes, the staircase in the middle of the main facade) and the themes of monumental and decorative arts.
With the discovery in the Chavin ceramics, and common to other sites (at least, those that are located in the coastal valleys of Moche and Chilon), it became clear that the individual churches maintain contact with each other. It is even possible that some vessels had been brought from distant places and placed insideChavin art galleries as offerings.
Thus, the first South American civilization appears as a network of interconnected centers of the temple. Actually Chavin serves as a kind of focus, not surpassing other major monumental constructions, and the quantity and quality of monuments of religious art. In addition, unlike other centers, Chavin, apparently, not only the church but also the ancient city. Posts from other places on the presence of a large inhabited area around the main complex of buildings are not available.
From primitive agriculturalists to early class society and a half thousand years
We return to the mysteries of Chavin. First of all, long remained unclear to date how this culture. "Father of Peruvian Archaeology," M. Ole, which opened in 1890-1900 years. Civilization I millennium AD. Oe. on the coast of Peru, believed that the Chavin not older than them. This opinion prevailed until then, while in the 20s Peruvian archaeologist X. C. Tello has not shown that materials that are more or less right to be called "chavinoidnymi" first, found in Peru at the vast area stretching over 1,000 km, and, secondly, of course, preceded by the cultures of I millennium AD. Oe. In recent decades, as the study of various monuments of Northern Peru and dating them radiokarbonnym method, the lifetime of the Chavin culture had to postpone all further back centuries, and now its appearance can be safely assigned to the XII century. BCE. Oe. This means that the Chavin - one of the oldest civilizations in the New World, synchronous to the earliest city-states in the Olmec Gulf Coast, and maybe that precedes them.
But the main problem is not so high antiquity as the sudden appearance of Chavin culture in northern Peru. Monumental sculpture and architecture, the original method of masonry, unique style of art developed zlatokuznechestvo (known by its findings on the coast of products with images, made on the basis of the same artistic principles, and that the characteristic Chavin reliefs in stone and ceramics) - all of this occurs as if from nowhere, not based on long tradition. Accordingly, that high-Governmental Organization, whose existence implies that we know the material and spiritual culture chavintsev, also appears as if already in the existing form.
But in the III millennium BC. Oe. residents of those areas where over 1000 - 1500 years has blossomed Chavin culture, did not know how to make pottery, and in the economy of many of them fishing, gathering, hunting had greater significance than the farming. Recall that in the Middle East between the beginning of the agricultural economy and the advent of the first early class societies of Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley was three goals. Thus, the main mystery of Chavin - society is a mystery that took place on the final path of becoming food-producing economy to early class society in a very short period of time.
Culture at the crossroads of natural areas
Naturally, in the hypotheses about the arrival of the builders of Chavin de Huantar in the northern mountains of Peru in another area there was no shortage. Their ancestral home was called Ecuador, the Amazon forest, the coast of Peru, Mexico and even China Chou. Except for the latter assumption is certainly not serious, all these views to some extent justified. In Ecuador, generated some characteristic Chavín ceramic types, and in the sea off the Ecuadorian coast are those of thermophilic mollusc shells, which we see depicted in monumental reliefs. In Amazonia, probably related worship crocodiles, which are not found in the mountain rivers, and, perhaps, the art style, as some researchers think that it was developed initially in wood carving. On the coast of Peru in the first half of the II millennium BC.Oe. constructed rather large pyramid, and possibly (if the hypothesis of an early dating of the temple of Cerro Sechin in the valley Kasme) appear on stone stelae. In Mexico, were domesticated in Peru found some crop plants. In addition, in Chavin, Olmec and was spread veneration jaguar. However, precisely because of multi-directional genetic relationships Chavin, it is clear that there must be an area where there was a merge of many disparate elements into a single culture and that it is most likely in the northern mountains of Peru, capturing, perhaps, the extreme south of Ecuador. In the end, not the inhabitants of the Amazon, and local farmers have achieved this level of production, which for the first time in America, it was possible to build on the rich decoration of the temples and their priests have served the and artisans.
Peruvian researchers Lumbreras and Amat approached the problem is with this position. According to Lumbreras, northern mountains of Peru occupy a privileged geographical position. This area is located near several centers of agriculture, where there are different agricultural crops. From Amazon here penetrated cassava, sweet potatoes and peanuts, from the forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes - coca, from Central America, through Ecuador - some types of beans and pumpkins, and possibly corn. Andes themselves - the birthplace of such crops as amaranth, quinoa and lupine, potato and other root vegetables, other than the Central American species of beans and pumpkins, and probably the Peruvian varieties of maize. Here were domesticated llama, alpaca and guinea pig (which, incidentally, is still a significant source of animal protein in the diet of Indians). It is equally important that in the immediate vicinity of Chavin different altitude zones, where resources are complementary to each other, and leading important area, "Quechua" (2300-3500 m above sea level) with even sub-tropical climate and sufficient rainfall rainfed agriculture, particularly favorable for corn crops. Significant forests in this zone there, so that the main concern of the farmer - not cutting down trees and digging canals do not, and terracing of steep slopes. Now Zone "Quechua" - Peru's breadbasket.Above it are the areas favorable for breeding of llamas and cultivation of major crops to Peru, as potatoes and quinoa. Below, in those valleys, which are open moist winds blowing from the Atlantic, possibly shifting cultivation with manioc as the main culture, and in dry valleys are grown, mainly fruit trees. Wet the eastern slopes of the Andes above zones of dense tropical forests provide a unique environment for growing coca - the bush in the leaves of which contains a narcotic substance.From ancient times the Indians used the coca of Peru during the ceremonies, and probably, like doping in heavy physical work. As for growing plants require constant daily and annual temperature about 18 ° C, it can be put only in certain areas, and coca leaves were valued very highly. The possession of coca in pre-Hispanic times was a certain guarantee of prosperity.
Severoperuansky way of addition of a civilization
Way of the addition of an ancient civilization in northern Peru was different from the known and based on the Old World (irrigation civilization valleys of great rivers, and later the class society with an economy based on rain-fed agriculture of the Mediterranean type). The only one of the oldest civilizations of Chavin culture was formed in the mountainous region on the basis of comprehensive utilization of agricultural resources of different altitudinal and climatic zones, growing number of high-yielding crops such as corn (maize), and tropical root crops (cassava) and breeding llamas and probably guinea pig. It is not clear, did chavintsy also potatoes.The fact that they breed on maize, cassava and other crops can say with certainty for two reasons. First, the images of these plants, though isolated, are found on monumental reliefs and pottery found in the northern mountains of Peru. Second, their remains are not preserved in a more humid climate region Chavin, discovered during excavations in the central mountains (where there is only cassava, which does not grow in those places) and on the coast. As for the potatoes, then the era of Chavin no images tubers or their indisputable archaeological remains. In this context, revealing that the influence of the Chavin did not spread to his homeland of potatoes - alpine steppe (Pune), the Bolivian altiplano, and clearly embraced only two natural regions: mountains with subtropical valleys and oases of the coast. In the economy of the coast, probably continued to be important to use great Peruvian food resources of coastal waters (fishing, gathering of "seafood", hunting for sea mammals).
As a result of the intensification of agriculture, the emergence of new crops, strengthen exchange and cultural interaction between the settlements located in different natural zones, in some measure on the basis of already available in Northern Peru by the middle of the II millennium BC. Oe. adding pockets of civilization was probably so rapid addition of Chavin culture, which monuments to its formative stages have been very few and so far not been found by archaeologists.After all, mountains of Peru archaeologists studied so far are extremely bad. This probably lies the mystery of origin of Chavin.
Chavin and the Barbarians
Chavin civilization has had a huge impact on the surrounding of the primitive tribes.In the early farming cultures of Central and Northern Peru extends chavinoidnaya or near her front ceramics, there are pictures of jaguar and anthropomorphic deity with fangs jaguar mouth. According to the studied this question VA Bashilova, borrowing inhabitants of different regions of Peru, some elements of the Chavin culture was associated with the penetration of them new, more productive varieties of corn, which had at its disposal chavintsy. As for the cult in Chavin feline predator, it, as already mentioned, is sometimes credited with the Central American influence, for such a cult was widespread among living on the Gulf Coast Olmec. Initially, jaguars were deified, where predators were the natural defenders of the fields of grazing animals. Consequently, the cult of the jaguar could have arisen not only in Mexico but in any forest region of South America, much closer to the Chavin.
However, not all the tribes came under the influence of civilization Chavin. Thus, archaeologists have long noticed that in the valley Kalehon de Uaylas, just west of the valley Mosna, for the mountain range, there is almost no monuments of Chavin.Residents Kalehon de Uaylas sculpted rather coarse ware and painted it on a red background with white paint.At least 300 - 400 years after the defeat of the Chavin, before the beginning of our era, in Peru there are new civilization. Nevertheless, the Chavin pretty much effect on their appearance, especially in art and ideology. Way of the impact is far from clear. For example, residents of the northern coast, creating a culture Mochica, consciously imitated the ancient, long-disused vessels Chavin era, they are likely to find, as we do in the old graves. Southern Culture on the central coast and particularly the Christian era Chavin influenced less, but due to his clearly felt for many hundreds of kilometers to the southeast, on the shores of Lake. Titicaca, ie, where similar to Chavín monuments just absolutely was not. Through the Mochica and other centers of the indirect influence of the Chavin penetrated century Peruvian civilization, which it found the Spaniards in the XVI century.
Mystery of the underground labyrinths
Now we can perhaps say that the main problems Chavin - the origin and destruction of this culture, its economic fundamentals - in principle solved, at least in the directions for future research that will someday discuss these issues in detail.However, the temple on the banks of Mosna, not to mention other centers, much less studied, yet hides a lot of secrets. Among the mysteries encountered in the recent excavations of Peruvian archaeologists - the appointment and the dating of certain underground galleries.
In 1966 - 1967's. in underground passageways called Ofrendas Rokas and discovered two sets of ornamented pottery. They have the same names as their own passages. Ofrendas complex was found in a rectangular room, leaving a straight corridor connecting them. Galleries of this type are found mainly in the array of masonry church buildings and have sophisticated ventilation devices, mines, which form long, horizontal moves. The walls are built of hewn galleries and plates were apparently covered with clay and painted. On the floor of the corridor was found in Ofrendas female skull, bordered forty children's baby teeth - evidence is committed ceremonies. Rokas complex found in the gallery, which represented a narrow underground passage of the curve without the side rooms, Gone far beyond the buildings of the temple. In contrast to the type Ofrendas galleries, the walls of galleries such as Rokas built of unhewn stones, and ventilation systems in them are short vertical shaft.
The researchers had no doubt that the picture type Rokas built before Ofrendas.Hence it was concluded that the pottery and Rokas older. It is well consistent with the fact that the complex represented Rokas vessels, which are widespread in the first half of the II millennium BC. Oe. in Ecuador and in the far north of Peru. In Ofrendas such vessels do not, and this was seen as a complex formed later in the Chavin de Huantar. In support of this evidence and the fact that this pottery is more refined, carefully trim and ornamentation. However, in 1972 during excavations proved that the oldest is a complex Ofrendas, although the assumption that older gallery Ofrendas Rokas, has ceased to exist when it opened the floor hole vertical ventilation shaft that runs from the bottom of the dug deeper into the gallery type Rokas. It is clear that ceramics found in the gallery Rokas, got there much later, after this passage was built. But if the gallery Ofrendas synchronous ancient temple construction phase, when the galleries were dug Rokas type? Is the period when the temple itself was not yet? And why do we need these long been the catacombs, misleading to many tens of meters beyond the central structures of Chavin, whose remains are found all the new places? In contrast, relatively spacious (more than 1 m wide) galleries Ofrendas type, connected with small rooms, galleries, Rokas type because of its narrowness and curvature (up to 80 cm) were hardly suitable for use as a space - whether it be storage or place of commission of some kind of cult act.This is exactly the moves that leads to nowhere.
Let's hope that the ongoing work of Peruvian scientists and disclose the secret.
Disappeared people. Collection of articles (based on the journal "Nature") / Ed.Doctor. Hist. Science PI Puchkov. M., "Science", 1988. S. 139-147.
An ancient civilization in Central part of the mountain of Peru (Huari culture)
The central mountain area stretches from Lake Junin and the origins of p. Mantaro in the north to the headwaters of the rivers Apurimac and Vilcanota in the south. Glen Mantaro runs from northwest to southeast, then turning to the northeast. Towards the south it carries the waters of Apurimac. In the upper reaches it has an extensive network of tributaries, the most important of which - p. Pampas - comes close to the lower reaches of the Mantaro. Parallel to the valley of the Apurimac valley is Vilcanota - Urubamba, sandwiched between the Cordillera mountain ranges to the west and Vilkabamba Cordillera Vilcanota to the east. All the rivers in this region, merging to form p. Ucayali - one of the sources of the Amazon.
Huari culture
Ancient ruins of Huari located on a promontory between the ravines, whose surface is staggered. At the bottom of which many remains of buildings, walls, terraces and other structures. The total area of the monument reaches 1.5-2 square meters. km.
Bennett (2) laid in a dozen different locations of the stratigraphic shuftov. These excavations have allowed to study the sequence of occurrence of pottery in the cultural layer, but have not figured out its connection with the monuments. Almost all of his monument in the complex remains unexplored archaeologically. In its vicinity there are several points where the pottery was found, similar to the material of the Huari.
Building remains
Huari stone buildings are many and varied. One of the biggest and most well-preserved buildings - La Capilla, or Capilla Pata. This is a large building, consisting of high (up to 8 m) walls, built of small stones on the rough clay mortar. Wall thickness decreases from 2-2.5 m at the base to 0,80-1,00 m at the top. These walls enclose an area of 50x50 m area are no passages in them are not detected.Windows either. In general, doors and windows are very rare in the buildings of Huari. Within the walls of La Capilla done a lot of small square indentations. This part is quite common in other buildings, and sometimes these are deepening in one horizontal row.
In addition to buildings such as La Capilla, in Huari is artificial hills, retaining walls and other structures. North of the two artificial hills, bearing the same name Kanteron, reaches a height of 8 m and has a length of 100 m and a width of 75 m. On top of it - a deepening of 50 m long, 25 meters, a depth of about 8m. The walls of the indentation lined with rough stones. They are large niches (width of about 1.70 m, depth of about 2.00 m) coated plates, and cut stone.
Ashlar and lined underground chamber, as described by Bennett. They are found in different places and monuments of various sizes. Complex set of cameras located just south of the central part of the monument. On the surface of the land was back door, which is closely surrounded by walls of rough stone. It consisted of four stones with round holes. Its total length (from north to south) and 4.62 m, width (from east to west), 2.25 m. This cover covers the room height of 1.80 m, which had no input. Its floor, consisting of three panels with the same hole, the lower chamber served as a ceiling, under which there was another floor. In the east wall of the second tier of cells was made by a doorway that connects with the deep (2.65 m) well, which came out on the ground next to the main chamber and covered with a stone slab. In the vicinity of these cameras are placed two more who had the simplest device. The appointment of these structures is unclear.
These are most clearly described in the literature building. Others just mentioned.Widely noted, however, the use of two construction techniques: rough stone masonry and the use of hewn slabs and blocks. Bennett suggests that they are at different times: built of hewn stone somewhat older than the masonry of rough stone. But he does not consider it proven. However, the niche of the northern Kanterona and how accurately entered the underground chamber in the complex contours of the rough stone walls, - all this makes rather assume that both the construction techniques are inseparable, and each has a special meaning.
A peculiar structure found in Huari, near the city of Huancayo Uilka, where the ruins of the walls of a thickness of 5 m around irregular quadrangle, representing an in antiquity probably a great platform with sides of length 40-50 m and a height of more than 5 m on the platform at some distance from front wall is a retaining wall of the second step platform height of 4-5 meters. At this stage, are seen traces of the third wall. Masonry walls of small rough stones, stacked so that it seems the series, reminds masonry Huari.
Sculpture
Of Huari statues are a few that do not have a more accurate passport. Most of them are located in the surrounding Hacienda monument or museum. Bennett refers to eight copies.
Huari statues are standing human figure no higher than 1.50 m. The mind usually frontlet, which often rises above the turban. From under the bandage on his shoulders, covering his ears, often comes down coat, turning on his back in a short cloak. The head is disproportionately large, square face, which are allocated large oval eyes, circled convex roller, and a wide nose.
In a similar manner, usually transmitted mouth and ears. At a short stocky torso wearing something like a shirt, a belt hooked. Hands of statues or elongated along the torso, or flexed at the elbow, and lie on his chest, squeezing an object. Brush over the grooves often performed, depicting the end of the strap or sleeves. Legs are usually repulsed. All the sculptures are very similar to each other. The initial position of the sculptures on the monument entirely clear. Accordingly, the impossible, and their interpretation.
Ceramics
Abundant ceramic material is very diverse both in form and in ornamentation. The most common large and small vessels with a round torso and bowls. Rounded vessels have vertical or deflected halo. They often have large loop-shaped handle extending from the coronet to the shoulders, and placed horizontally or vertically on the walls of the vessel. Role play pens and high modeled relief images with holes.On the side of the vessel is sometimes spout. The bowls have a direct radiating, concave, convex and vertical walls. Sometimes the corolla is bent. Some bowls also have noses. On thick-walled bowls with radiating edges meet broad horizontal handles in the form of a loop. We found several miskoobraznyh Tripods.
Numerous thick-walled vessels and large with a rounded, somewhat oblong and torso with widely divergent vertiklnym or throat. On the body sometimes has vertical handles. Throat often takes the form of the head with a raised face. In this case, the torso is usually painted in the form of a human figure. Frequent round-bowl, sometimes with a beveled inside rim.
Interesting findings cups - "Kero" typical Bolivian Tiaunako. They often have a convex or a belt at the top of the mask or sculpture.
There are round vessels with a long tapering neck and off of it a wide handle and double-figured vessels. Generally found many fragments of simulated vessels.Sometimes, such as long tapering necks are dvugorlym vessels.
Ornamentation painted pottery found on the site of Huari, very diverse. Most of the wreckage belongs to the so-called Huari Group. Numerous geometric shapes - a step, crosses, intersecting lines, bands, circles, dots, wavy lines, S-shaped elements, etc. Here and complex motifs representing plants, animals, and these cheloveka.Stilistika scene images is very similar to the methods of art Bolivian culture of Tiwanaku. The human figure is drawn with a square face, oval or round eyes, from which the cheeks are "tears." In similar style, and painted glassware with sculpted masks.
Abundant in the group of Huari zoomorphic and floral motifs. Particularly prevalent and cougars condor's head, often associated with jewelry clothing and headdresses of human figures. These images, as well as floral motifs, with their sharp, curved lines at right angles, are very close to the characteristic tiauakakskomu style.
Colours hand-painted glassware Huari Group is different. Here there are monochrome and polychrome vessels, sometimes using up to seven colors at once.Suitable black, white, yellow, gray, purple and orange painted on a red background.
Another group of ceramic - Ayacucho. Among the reasons for painting a lot of extremely stylized zoomorphic images, elements of floral ornament and other subjects. Straight sharp lines with no right angles. A soft, curved contours. The color scheme is rich. Mostly common combination of three to five colors, but sometimes one is a fragment, and six colors.
Another group - ceramics Akuchimay. The painting of this group entirely geometric.The most typical pattern - repeating zigzag horizontal stripes, and color of their alternate. There are rows of triangles and lines. Frequent ribbons and points in a semicircle, and interlocking zigzags. Sometimes a dish is placed heavily stylized face. Occasionally come across an image in relief. Polychrome painting (red, purple, white, yellow, orange, black, red and brown). Used up to four colors at once.However, the color palette is soft, muted.
Stone, bone, shell, metal
At Huari met obsidian tools. Among them, knives, choppers and oval spear. Their edges are processed by pressure retouch. In addition they found the stone tops and fragments of stone mace bowls or mortars.
Quite a few bone objects: point, spoons, plates. They sometimes suffer simple carvings. There are also ornaments of drilled shells.
At Huari found only a few metal objects, and a very poor state of preservation. In private collections stored gold and silver objects that happen to this monument.
Huari culture belonged to settle down, most likely an agricultural population engaged, apparently, the entire territory of the Central Mining District. Pottery of this culture met far to the south-east, about Sikuani. Huari itself is a type of fortified military settlement settlement, is well protected by natural boundaries, which in several places reinforced walls. At a later time around there were small settlements, gravitated to the Huari as the center. People living here have made great strides in the art of stone working.
Traces of Huari culture and were found near the city of Cuzco (located in a small mountain valley of the eastern slope of the Andes, a tributary of the river valley. Vilcanota, or Urubamba, at an altitude of 3500 m above sea level).
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